Forging Unity: Mahatma Gandhi, Indian Opinion and the Shaping of Indian Identity in South Africa

- By Sushmita Rajwar*

Abstract

Mahatma Gandhi's tenure in South Africa marked a pivotal moment for both South African history and the Indian independence movement. During this time, he earned the title "Mahatma" as he committed himself to fighting for Indian rights. His opposition to racial discrimination, especially in Natal, set the groundwork for his future activism and the larger struggle against racial injustice in the country. Gandhi's impactful writings helped unify the diverse Indian community in South Africa, motivating collective resistance against oppression. He leveraged media, particularly through Indian Opinion, to mobilize the Indian populace against colonial injustices, emphasizing their determination to resist discrimination. His skilful use of media not only instilled a strong sense of resistance among South African Indians but also equipped them to continue challenging injustices following his departure.

Introduction

Mahatma Gandhi’s contributions to the history of South African Indians are widely recognized. His 21-year stay in South Africa transformed both his own life and the Indian community there. When he arrived in 1893, he was a young lawyer focused on his career. However, the racial discrimination he experienced - most famously being thrown out of a first-class railway compartment along with the daily humiliations faced by Indians under colonial rule awakened in him a deeper sense of purpose.

Gradually, Gandhi evolved into a community leader and developed the concept of satyagraha, or nonviolent resistance. He organised campaigns against oppressive laws such as the pass system and the Asiatic Registration Act, uniting a diverse Indian population divided by region, religion, and language. Through his activism and his newspaper, Indian Opinion, he fostered a shared political identity among South African Indians and encouraged collective resistance to injustice.

For the Indian community, Gandhi's leadership became a catalyst for political awakening. He instilled confidence and agency, urging them to reject the degrading label of "coolies" and assert their rights as British subjects. His efforts strengthened organisations like the Natal Indian Congress, which provided a platform for political negotiation. By the time he left in 1914, Gandhi had become a seasoned activist, and the foundations he laid shaped the community's later role in South Africa's broader struggle against racial oppression.

Central to this transformation was Gandhi's strategic use of writing. Recognising the power of the press, he published Indian Opinion to promote social and political awareness. Among his early writings, "The Green Pamphlet: The Grievances of the British Indians in South Africa: An Appeal to the Indian Public" (1896) stands out as a powerful indictment of colonial injustice. Written in Rajkot during a visit to India, the pamphlet exposed the degrading treatment of Indians and responded to racist portrayals in sections of the white South African press.

The man in the street hates him, curses him, spits upon him and often pushes him off the foot path. The Press cannot find a sufficiently strong word in the English dictionary to damn him with"...... "These parasites"....."wily, wretched semi-barbarous Asiatics", he is Ramysamy, he is Mr. Samy, he is Mr. Coolie, the black man.

The pamphlet appealed directly to British authorities, documenting specific injustices suffered by Indians in Durban and elsewhere. Gandhi criticised a Natal Government bill that barred non-Europeans from voting, supported by Mr. Chamberlain on the claim that the Indian vote would "overwhelm" Europeans. Gandhi insisted that Indians, as British subjects, were entitled to equal political rights, including the franchise.

He also condemned the £3 tax imposed on Indians who remained in South Africa after indenture, describing it as inhumane. Gandhi recounted the case of Balasundaram, an indentured labourer brutally assaulted by his employer in 1894, leaving him bleeding with broken teeth. Gandhi filed a complaint, but Balasundaram ultimately had to settle with his employer, illustrating the limited justice available to indentured workers (Gandhi, 1896).

Through such examples, Gandhi depicted the harsh realities of indentured labour, which he likened to modern slavery. The Green Pamphlet systematically refuted racist stereotypes of Indians as unhygienic or inferior and substantiated its claims with evidence. The British authorities viewed it as anti-government propaganda. When Gandhi returned to Durban after its publication, his ship was prevented from docking for three days due to the controversy it generated.

Gandhi's Impact through the print media

Long before Gandhi emerged as a prominent freedom fighter and political leader, he established himself as a skilled and compelling writer in South Africa. His time there taught him to harness the power of the written word, with newspapers as the most effective medium to reach a broad audience. Gandhi's writings reflected the various phases of his political struggle, mobilizing public sentiment and rallying people toward shared goals. His words not only informed and united the public but also fuelled his own resolve. With an exceptional gift for communication, Gandhi strategically published in multiple languages, understanding the linguistic diversity within the Indian diaspora.

Isabel Hofmeyr (2013) provides a comprehensive analysis of Gandhi's time in South Africa, with particular focus on his role as the proprietor of a printing press and the founder of the periodical Indian Opinion. Through her detailed examination, Hofmeyr illustrates how Gandhi's engagement with print media was not merely a secondary aspect of his activism but a central pillar in his political and ideological development. His experience as a newspaperman allowed him to refine his ability to communicate effectively, mobilize communities, and challenge colonial authority through the written word. Over time, he became one of the most influential figures in this field during his tenure in South Africa, using journalism as a tool to shape public discourse and organize resistance.

Hofmeyr underscores how Gandhi's background as a subject of a colonized nation provided him with a unique perspective on the power dynamics of the British Empire. He recognized that colonial rule relied heavily on the efficient, rapid transmission of information across vast distances, a system that enabled authorities to maintain control, enforce laws, and suppress dissent. By understanding this mechanism, Gandhi was able to subvert it to his advantage - using print media as a counterforce to imperial narratives. Through Indian Opinion, he ensured that the struggles of Indians in South Africa reached a global audience, thereby drawing attention to issues of racial discrimination and injustice that might have otherwise remained localized.

Furthermore, Hofmeyr's analysis sheds light on how Gandhi's immersion in print culture shaped his later political strategies. His ability to craft persuasive arguments, disseminate critical ideas, and engage with both the oppressed and the oppressors through print media played a crucial role in the evolution of his philosophy of nonviolent resistance. The Indian Opinion was not just a publication; it was a vehicle for consciousness-raising, community organizing, and transnational solidarity. Through this platform, Gandhi was able to connect struggles across different geographies, reinforcing the idea that resistance against colonialism required an informed and united populace.

Gandhi first encountered newspapers while studying law in England in 1888. However, it was in South Africa that he launched his most influential newspaper, Indian Opinion, through which he wrote extensively. Upon arriving in South Africa, he quickly recognized the oppressive conditions faced by South African Indians under British colonial rule. Realizing the media's potential to expose these injustices, Gandhi began writing for prominent outlets such as The Hindu, The Statesman, Pioneer, and The Madras Standard, establishing connections with media in both India and South Africa. He also sought the support of Indian editors, asserting that publicity was their "best and only defense" (Chatterjee, Mrinal & Sambit Pal, 2018).

Yet, Gandhi found that contributing articles and giving interviews to established media outlets was not enough to amplify his message. He needed a direct platform to broadcast the mistreatment of Indians under colonial rule and to mobilize South African Indians, many of whom were unsure of how to negotiate or advocate for their rights. This realization led him to start Indian Opinion in 1903. It quickly became an essential publication, shaping political awareness and unity among the Indian community in South Africa.

Gandhi soon realised that those who controlled the press could create public opinion. As quoted by S. Bhattacharyya (1965) in his book, Gandhi said later:

I believe that a struggle which chiefly relies upon internal strength cannot be wholly carried on without a newspaper- it is also my experience that we could not perhaps have educated the local Indian community, nor kept Indians all over the world in touch with the course of events in South Africa in any other way, with the same ease and success as through the Indian Opinion, which therefore was certainly a most useful and potent weapon in our struggle.

Newspaper as a Unifying Force

The first issue of Indian Opinion was published on June 4, 1903, with support from the Natal Indian Congress. Mansukhlal Nazar, the Congress's secretary, served as its first editor, and later, Gandhi's son, Manilal, would become the newspaper's longest-serving editor. From the outset, Gandhi made Indian Opinion's mission clear, stating, "Our countrymen in South Africa are without the guiding influence of the institutions that exist in India, and that impart the necessary moral tone when it is wanting" (Gandhi, 1903a). Gandhi envisioned Indian Opinion as more than a publication - it was meant to serve as an institution in its own right. Through its pages, he aimed to inform, unify, and empower the Indian diaspora, providing a moral and social anchor in an unfamiliar land. By promoting a sense of collective identity and shared purpose, Indian Opinion sought to mobilize the community, foster resilience, and inspire the Indian diaspora to assert their rights with dignity and solidarity.

Before Indian Opinion, two Indian newspapers were published in South Africa. The first, Indian World, was launched in 1898 by P.S. Aiyar. Three years later, in 1901, the Colonial Indian News began publication from Pietermaritzburg. Initially printed in English, the newspaper later introduced a Tamil edition. However, due to a lack of readership, the publication ceased operations in 1903 (Mesthrie, 1997).

In this inaugural issue, Gandhi underscored the transformative potential of a united Indian community in influencing South Africa's political landscape. He firmly believed that if Indians recognized their collective strength and acted in solidarity, they could not only shape public opinion but also effectively advocate for their rights and challenge discriminatory policies (Pandey, 2018). His vision extended beyond mere awareness; he sought to instill a sense of agency among Indians in South Africa, encouraging them to see themselves as active participants in their own struggle rather than passive victims of colonial rule.

The newspaper quickly gained traction within the Indian community, becoming an essential source of news, commentary, and mobilization. Readers eagerly awaited each issue, finding in Gandhi's words a reflection of their own grievances, aspirations, and struggles. His writings addressed pressing concerns, from restrictive immigration laws and labor exploitation to the broader fight against racial injustice, giving a voice to those who had long been marginalized. The paper not only informed but also inspired, fostering a collective consciousness that transcended class and regional divides within the Indian diaspora in South Africa.

Gandhi's advocacy through the publication was deeply personal and emotional, as he viewed journalism not just as a means of communication but as an instrument of resistance. By highlighting the everyday struggles of Indians and articulating a vision for their empowerment, he transformed the newspaper into more than just a publication - it became a rallying point for the community. His ability to connect with his readers on such a profound level helped cement his role as a leader, reinforcing his belief that a well-informed and united Indian populace had the power to effect meaningful change. One of the key issues that Gandhi addressed was the harsh reality faced by indentured Indian labourers, whose numbers had reached 81,390 by the end of 1903. He highlighted the deplorable living conditions, with many labourers dying from diseases like plague and pneumonia, and exposed the British government's false narrative that indentured labourers could return to India with substantial savings. In reality, the 2,029 labourers who returned in 1903 brought back only £34,690, revealing that indentured labour offered little financial security (Gandhi, 1904a). Gandhi argued passionately against the indenture system, calling it a form of slavery, and expressed hope for the day when Indian immigration for indentured labour would cease. He also emphasized that Indians, both as labourers and free citizens, had greatly contributed to the colony's economy (Gandhi, 1904b).

Beyond labour issues, Gandhi used Indian Opinion to address the lack of quality education for Indian children. He raised the issue of education for Indian children in South Africa, underscoring the importance of quality education in empowering the Indian community. He was concerned that Indian children were not receiving adequate educational opportunities, which he believed would hinder their intellectual growth and, in turn, limit the progress of the entire community.

One of Gandhi's primary concerns was that Indian children were restricted to elementary education and often segregated into poorly funded "Indian schools". After the age of thirteen, they were generally barred from attending general schools, cutting them off from broader educational advancement. In his articles, Gandhi expressed frustration over this lack of access to quality education and argued that these limitations would stifle the community's future potential. (Gandhi, 1909).

Through Indian Opinion, Gandhi provided a powerful counter-narrative to British policies and created a platform for the Indian community to challenge injustices, laying the groundwork for a unified movement in South Africa.

Indians as a Unified Community

Gandhi avoided referring to Indians by regional or linguistic identities, instead focusing on unifying the Indian diaspora around common concerns. Indian Opinion, the newspaper he launched, was dedicated to addressing issues relevant to all Indians in South Africa. To reach the diverse Indian community in Natal, he published it in Hindi, English, Gujarati, and Tamil, ensuring accessibility for Hindus, Muslims, Tamilians, and Gujaratis alike, while also connecting with the English-speaking population. Gandhi's aim was not to erase individual identities but to unite everyone under the banner of "British Indians" and foster a collective purpose.

Acknowledging the community's diversity, Gandhi warned against letting divisions hinder their progress. In his article "The Uses of Adversity" (1903d), he wrote, "If we have brought from India these divisions and differences as a very valuable cargo...there is no doubt that it would clog us at every step and hinder our progress."

Gandhi also fought for the rights of specific communities when needed, recognizing that individual cases could impact all Indians. A notable example involved a Muslim man who had married in India and later moved to the Transvaal with his wife. When he attempted to enter with her, the colonial authorities refused to recognize their marriage, claiming it did not meet European legal standards. This effectively barred his wife from entry. Gandhi warned that this policy could have far-reaching consequences, leading authorities to question the legality of all Indian marriages conducted without a Western-style marriage certificate. This denial of recognition threatened the stability of families and cast doubt on the legitimacy of marital relationships within the Indian community.

Through Indian Opinion, Gandhi took a firm stand, arguing that such policies were discriminatory and violated Indians' fundamental rights. He asserted that all Indians-Hindus, Muslims, and others-deserved equal respect for their personal laws and customs, especially in matters as sacred as marriage. By publicizing these issues, Gandhi aimed to unify the Indian community in opposition to these injustices and pressure the colonial administration to respect the sanctity of Indian marriage traditions (Gandhi, 1913).

The Fight Against the Oppressive Indenture Labor System

Gandhi was outspoken about how deeply the British economy depended on the indenture labour system, and he argued that they would not willingly abolish it. In his well-known editorial, "The Lion and the Lamb" (1903c), Gandhi used the allegory of a lion blaming a lamb for muddying a stream to illustrate the British tendency to unfairly blame Indians for social and economic issues. He highlighted the growing resentment of Europeans toward the prosperity of Indians, who had begun to build successful lives and businesses. This resentment manifested in opposition to the Asiatic Bazaar proposal and changes to the Immigration Act. Gandhi suggested that if British authorities found it difficult to manage the Indian population, they should simply end Indian immigration altogether, stating, "We say with all earnestness we can command: stop the immigration..." (Gandhi, 1903c).

Through Indian Opinion, Gandhi detailed the harsh conditions faced by indentured labourers and called for the abolition of the system. He consistently advocated for this cause, describing how the terms of indenture were exploitative and led to derogatory treatment of Indians. His articles like "The British Indians in South Africa", "The Lion and the Lamb", "Immigration Bill", and "The Labour Question in Transvaal", among others - addressed these injustices, proposing solutions to improve the lives of indentured Indians. In his article on 'The Immigration Act' (1903f), he has severely criticised the British stand on derecognising the five-year residence period of indentured labourer as constituting their domicile. This clearly states that the norms of the Act were much stricter for the Indians who could not obtain domicile even after serving for five years as indentured labour.

Initially, Gandhi's opposition to indentureship was rooted more in a fight against discrimination than in nationalist ambitions, as he focused on the injustices faced by Indians in the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. In particular, he condemned laws restricting Indian employment to menial tasks and the £3 poll tax imposed on Indians entering Transvaal. While criticising this Gandhi writes, "The European lion bids fair to swallow up the Indian lamb in British South Africa while the arbiter at Downing Street is looking on." (Gandhi, 1903e).

Gandhi actively sought to cultivate a close and personal connection between himself, as the editor of his publications, and his readers, both in South Africa and India. Through his writings, he provided continuous updates on the socio-political conditions faced by Indians in South Africa, ensuring that the struggles and injustices they encountered were not only documented but also disseminated to a broader audience in India. This steady flow of information was facilitated through newspapers, letters, and other written communications, which served as a bridge between the two regions.

By keeping the Indian public informed about the challenges faced by their compatriots in South Africa, Gandhi was able to garner sympathy and support for their cause, fostering a sense of transnational solidarity. His reports detailed discriminatory laws, acts of resistance, and the broader implications of racial oppression, positioning the plight of Indians in South Africa as a critical issue that demanded attention from both political and social leaders in India. This exchange of news and perspectives also allowed Indians in South Africa to remain connected to the nationalist movements and socio-political developments unfolding in their homeland, reinforcing a shared sense of identity and purpose.

Markovits (2014) has described this dynamic flow of information as "inhabiting both spaces," emphasizing the way in which Gandhi's activism transcended geographical boundaries. He was not merely a passive observer or correspondent but an active participant in shaping public discourse in both contexts. His editorial work functioned as a conduit for mobilization, ensuring that the struggles of Indians in South Africa resonated within the larger framework of Indian political consciousness. This dual engagement played a crucial role in shaping Gandhi's evolving ideology and strategies, as he navigated the intersection of imperial power, racial discrimination, and nationalist aspirations in both regions.

Gandhi frequently travelled between India and London to establish and strengthen connections with prominent leaders and thinkers. His regular interactions with influential Congress leaders such as Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, and Bal Gangadhar Tilak significantly advanced his vision and future endeavors. Additionally, he met with government officials, including Lord Elgin and John Morley, to gain insights into the political dynamics spanning three continents (Power, 1969).

Gandhi sought the support of the Indian National Congress to bring the indentured labour issue to the attention of the British government and worked with leaders like Gokhale and Naoroji to amplify awareness. His advocacy brought the plight of indentured Indians into the Indian nationalist discourse, which increasingly opposed indentureship between 1900 and 1910.

In 1912, Gopal Krishna Gokhale introduced a resolution in the Imperial Legislative Council to prohibit the recruitment of Indian labourers under indenture. Though defeated (22 votes for, 33 against), Gokhale argued that indentureship was degrading, reducing Indians to the status of "coolies" and stripping them of dignity:

'... this Council recommends to the Governor-General-in-Council that the Government of India should now take the necessary steps to prohibit the recruitment of Indian labourers under contract of indenture, whether for employment at home or in any British Colony (Gokhale, 1912).

Similarly, Gandhi criticized the British portrayal of Indians as "filthy beings without any virtue" (Gandhi, 1903b). In 1916, Madan Mohan Malaviya moved another resolution against indentureship. Malaviya's resolution stated that the indenture system was degrading and reduced Indian workers to a status akin to slavery, with people often referred to dismissively as "coolies". He argued that continuing this practice not only harmed individuals but also damaged India's dignity and reputation. The resolution was a rallying cry for reform and attempted to put an end to this practice, which trapped Indian labourers in severe working conditions far from home. Despite Malaviya's compelling arguments and widespread opposition to the system, the resolution was defeated in the council.

Undeterred, Gandhi vowed to initiate a Satyagraha if the system was not abolished by March 1917. His persistent efforts, alongside those of other leaders, eventually led to the end of indentured labour migration on March 20, 1917. This marked a significant victory in the fight for Indian dignity and against the oppressive labour system.

Political Mobilization of Indians

Gandhi worked tirelessly to instill a sense of "Indianness" in the South African Indian community, aiming to bridge the divisions among them based on region, language, and religion. Indian Opinion served as a powerful tool in this mission, publishing columns that urged Indians to unite against British discrimination and demand fair treatment. Through the newspaper, Gandhi brought his negotiations with colonial authorities to public attention, including discussions with the British Indian Association and Lord Milner on oppressive taxes and the requirement for Indians to carry passes (Gandhi, 1903). He emphasized that Indians should demand humane working conditions and refuse to accept the label of "coolies" imposed on them by the British.

Surendra Bhana and Goolam Vahed (2005) explore how Gandhi redefined the cultural and religious identity of his South African followers, strategically molding it into a unifying political identity that could be leveraged in the struggle against local white domination. They argue that Gandhi's approach was not solely about resistance but also about positioning the Indian community in a way that would elicit British protection by reinforcing their status as British subjects.

A crucial aspect of this strategy was Gandhi's emphasis on "Indianness," which deliberately highlighted a sense of otherness and distinction from the indigenous African population, despite their shared experiences of oppression under colonial rule. This tactic, while fostering solidarity among Indians in South Africa, also reinforced socio-political divisions between different racial groups. By maintaining a clear connection to India and simultaneously affirming their allegiance to the British Empire, Gandhi's followers were able to advocate for their rights within the imperial framework rather than align with broader anti-colonial struggles in the region.

Such scholarship sheds light on the complexities of Gandhi's politics in South Africa, illustrating how his efforts to uplift the Indian community were deeply intertwined with imperial loyalties and the strategic formation of identity. This nuanced perspective challenges the conventional portrayal of Gandhi as an unequivocal anti-colonial leader, revealing the calculated pragmatism behind his early activism.

The resistance to the Asiatic Registration Act saw numerous Indians, including Gandhi's own son, being arrested for hawking without licences. Defiance of this law became a symbol of honour, as the community celebrated the release of imprisoned Satyagrahis, including Imam Abdool Kadir and others, fostering unity across diverse backgrounds (Gandhi, 1908). In one notable example, Indians who were arrested were offered a choice by the magistrate: pay a fine or face rigorous imprisonment. Nearly all chose jail, demonstrating their commitment to the cause (Gandhi, 1908). Gandhi's writings inspired them to see prison as a preferable alternative to compromising their dignity.

In his letters to Gokhale, Gandhi explained his efforts to mobilize the Indian community in South Africa and urged the Indian National Congress to address their plight. He highlighted that Indians in South Africa faced some of the harshest conditions of any British colony, and he tirelessly advocated for an end to the indentured labour system. Gandhi's correspondence played a crucial role in building support within India, ultimately leading to Congress's efforts to end indentureship. This talent for political mobilisation also proved quite useful in his later years, when he returned to India.

Markovits (2003) underscores the significant influence of Gandhi's formative and transformative years in South Africa on the development of his later public image. He argues that Gandhi's experiences during this period were instrumental in shaping his political ideology, leadership style, and approach to nonviolent resistance. Furthermore, Markovits asserts that the differences between Gandhi's early and later phases should not be disregarded but instead carefully examined and critically assessed. By doing so, a more nuanced understanding of Gandhi's evolution as a leader and thinker can be achieved, shedding light on the complexities and contradictions that defined his journey.

Conclusion

Mahatma Gandhi's effectiveness as a writer was central to his leadership in South Africa. Through speeches, pamphlets, letters, and Indian Opinion, published in several languages, he promoted unity, resistance, and political awareness among oppressed communities. His legal training strengthened his advocacy for both Indians and Africans living under colonial rule, while Indian Opinion emerged as a crucial medium for educating, inspiring, and mobilising the Indian population. The editorials offered hope, fostered solidarity, and encouraged confidence in the methods of nonviolent resistance that Gandhi advocated. Even after Gandhi returned to India in 1914, the principles he had disseminated continued to shape protests and campaigns, contributing to the abolition of indentureship and reinforcing the Indian community's lasting significance in South African history.

At the time, many Indians were largely engaged in trade and lacked formal education or political awareness, a condition Gandhi helped transform through sustained journalistic interventions and by drafting petitions to the governments of Natal, India, and Britain. His commitment deepened during conflicts such as the Transvaal bill, which restricted Indian movement and produced a highly politicised climate marked by the burning of registration certificates and open defiance of colonial authority (du Toit, 1996). Gandhi's mobilisation efforts helped establish the Natal Indian Congress and promoted critical scrutiny of British legislation through Indian Opinion. Continued later by his son Manilal, the newspaper remained a beacon for political action, ensuring that Gandhi's early leadership left a durable legacy of unity, resilience, and organised advocacy.

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Courtesy: Gandhi Marg , Volume 47 Number 3, October-December 2025

* Sushmita Rajwar is Associate Professor, Centre for African Studies, School of International Studies, JNU, New Delhi- 110067 Email: sushmitarajwar2@gmail.com