Peace Education or

Education for Peace

Devi Prasad

Foreword by : R.R. Diwakar

First Published: 1984

Gandhi Peace Foundation

221-223 Deen Dayal Upadhyay Marg,

New Delhi 110 002

Peace Education or Education for Peace

CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

FOREWORD

INTRODUCTION

PART ONE

PEACE EDUCATION—an overview

1. PEACE RESEARCH

2. TRAINING FOR PEACE AND NONVIOLENCE: RESOURCE MATERIAL

2.1. Training Manuals

2.2. Handbooks and other publications

2.3. Movement journals and newsletters

2.4. Audio-visual material

3. PEACE EDUCATION AND THE POPULAR PRESS

4. PEACE GROUPS OF PROFESSIONALS

The B.M.A. Report

5. THE UNITED NATIONS AND DISARMAMENT

6. PACIFIST AND NONVIOLENT MOVEMENTS

6.1. Pacifist movements and the growth of anti-militarism

6.2. The anti-nuclear movement

6.3. The nonviolent movement in India

7. PEACE AND THE ENVIRONMENT

8. PEACE AND NUCLEAR ENERGY

Radio activity

Nuclear Waste

SUMMARY 0F PART ONE

What could this breakthrough be?

PART TWO

EDUCATION FOR PEACE

—a thesis

Conclusion

REFERENCES

APPENDICES

1. Bibliography

Peace journals—a selected list

2. Peace Organisations—a selected list

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am thankful to those friends of mine who had sent their comments and

suggestions after reading the original essay Peace Education or Education for

Peace, which was published in some peace journals a couple of years ago. Many

of those comments have helped me in developing the theme further. Last year

Sri R.R. Diwakar went through the paper and gave me a written note pointing

out some of the gaps, which I knew were there, but had felt too lazy to re-

write the paper in the same form. When Sri Radhakrishna read it he suggested

that I should expand it and make it into a book, which the Gandhi Peace

Foundation could publish. I am thankful to both of them to induce me to

present my thesis in this form.

Throughout the course of writing, first the original essay, and then the book,

my wife Bindu Prasad continued helping with ideas, comments and information

relevant to the subject of special education. She has also assisted in preparing

the typescript of the bibliography and the list of peace organisations. It would

have been difficult for me to complete the work without all the help she gave

so lovingly. My very special thanks to D. Dalip who put in so much of his time in

going through the manuscript, reading proofs and preparing the sketches and

the lay-out of the book including the cover. Thanks also to Rita Roy for her

help in proofreading. Diwakarji has been very kind to agree to write the

Foreword, for which I am grateful to him.

Hiroshima Day

August 6,1984

Devi Prasad

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Peace Education or Education for Peace

FOREWORD

'Peace Education or Education for Peace’ is a two-fold title for this small book

on a very big problem, in fact the biggest before mankind today.

The author deals with two aspects of the problem. Under 'Peace Education* he

deals with several disciplines, training and efforts which people dedicated to

world peace have been adopting to combat the menace of war, absence of

peace and socio-economic evils—ethnic, religious or cultural, and which often

leads to violence and destruction of people and property.

The author has been active in opposing war. He has enriched the book with a

wealth of detail which has never been brought together in this way. Here we

have the pacifists who turned conscientious objectors against all kinds of war;

we have those who trained themselves as nonviolent resisters to socio-

economic evils in society; we have information on training and discipline of the

satyagraha movement in India initiated by Gandhi; and a bibliography. There

are also interesting details on how people were deluded into believing that

they could escape the disasters if they build underground shelters.

The quality, the amount, and the varieties of information regarding the deadly

effects of nuclear war, which have been flooding the mass media are enough to

convince even a blockhead that there is no real remedy against its annihilating

effects, and that prevention of such a suicidal war is the only effective

remedy. It is suicidal because such a war is 'unwinnable'; as neither the victor,

nor the vanquished will survive, as this kind of violence has lost its 'survival

value' altogether.

Warnings against its disastrous effects were given by Einstein in his five-line

letter to President Roosevelt. Dr J. Robert Oppenheimer had qualms of

conscience even as he was on the job of manufacturing the 'Little Boy' which

killed in a split second 70,000 inhabitants of Hiroshima on 6th August 1945 and

the 'Fat Man' which devastated Nagasaki three days later. But instant

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destruction apart, by 1983 more than two thousand Japanese victims had died

of its after-effects. Its genetic effects have yet to be investigated.

On the eve of President Truman's fatal decision in 1945 to use the atomic bomb

32 scientists presented a signed document not to use the bomb at all on non-

military targets and if used on a military target, never to use it without giving

prior warning.

It was hardly realised that the whole question of war and peace between

nations had undergone a sea-change. As the British Prime Minister Clement

Atlee put it in his letter to Truman on 25th Sept., 1945, that the atom bomb

has meant not a quantitative but a qualitative change in the nature of warfare,

and that it was more destructive than anything the world had previously

known. Even after 39 years, we have no effective defence either, and the

capability of atomic weaponry is not the privilege of only one or two but five

Powers. Its know-how is supposed to be with 35 nations.

With all the inventiveness of man and the mighty strides in science and

technology no effective defence has yet been found. Like the 'fire-

extinguisher', there is no 'bomb extinguisher' in sight! Politicians responsible for

running governments of countries do not educate their people about the

qualitative change in the nature of war. Instead, they are going ahead with

more and more nuclear tests and with the arms race. Both, the politicians and

the people are being deluded into seeking peace in what is called 'deterrence',

similar to the old-time jargon called 'balance of power'. This is in spite of a

warning given by the former U.S. Defence Secretary McNamara that in the

"name of deterrence the big powers are walking straight into a deathtrap.

The tragedy of the world situation and of the four-and-a-half billion people

inhabiting this earth is that the arms race is going on with the full knowledge

of its consequences on account of the logic of the power-struggle. Since the

remedy cannot be found in the external situation which is a logical

consequence of the mutual fear and distrust within the political powers who

are competing for ruling over the whole world, it has to be found in the minds

of men and women and children whose very existence is at stake.

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In the second part, the author puts emphasis on education for peace—for peace

of mind; peace in the family, peace in society and peace between nations.

Peace within the borders of a nation has been vouchsafed by vesting the

monopoly of violent sanction in the Nation-State. It was sought to do the same

(theoretically) through the United Nations Organisation by those powers who

were the victors in the Second World War. But it has proved an abortive

attempt. Although the emblem, they said, was 'to beat swords into

ploughshares', it has become petrified into a beautiful sculpture at the Head

Quarters of the U.N. It has now remained only a copy-book maxim. One-world

government or a federation or free nations would perhaps be a solution!

It is in this area of thought and action that the educationist in the author of

this book has a full play. Is there something tragic within the mind of the

human being that drives him to aggression and violence? It is true that man has

not yet cared to build a value-system which could guide his steps in using,

instead of abusing, science and technology. It is not too late for the inner

apparatus of man—his consciousness—to create a value-system which would use

his energies only constructively.

Man is not only conscious but is self-conscious too, and he knows that he is so,

and can therefore be a witness to what is going on in his consciousness. He has

also developed a conscience, a kind of judgement centre for creating values.

It is his privilege to strengthen his will to stick to and promote values that he

knows can take him to higher and nobler levels of consciousness, giving him a

sense of fulfilment and perfection.

Gandhi was one of the foremost path-finders in this respects. Faced, as man is,

with constructive and destructive forces in himself and in nature, love and

hate, life and death, health and disease, joy and sorrow, man ought to ally

himself with constructive forces. The positive and negative elements, the

passions for good as well as evil are there in the known and unknown regions of

the consciousness of man. It is for man, the moral being that he claims to be,

to promote positive, life- giving and progressive urges without giving any

leeway to the negative ones.

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Nor is. there any scope for man to despair when the scene seems to be so dark-

For, even a cursory glance at the sociology of homo, sapiens reveals that

millennia after millennia man has progressed from the stage when only a few in

number lived in caves to over four billions now spread over in one hundred and

sixty organised nations, with a United Nations he himself has created. It gives

hope that the positive forces have proved their survival value.

Education for peace, therefore aims at promoting the positive urges in man

such as search for truth, love, friendliness, cooperation, harmony and so on.

We should be equally careful to see that urges which drive one to destroy and

harm others are curbed and substituted by positive urges.

The book is obviously a work by a confirmed peace worker and who has to his

credit an activist career in the field of world peace and a rich experience in

Gandhi's educational experiments. This book is a good contribution both in the

field of Peace Education and Education for Peace.

R.R. DIWAKAR

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INTRODUCTION

In the summer of the year ninteen-eighty-two I was asked to give a talk on

peace education at a conference in London. The organisers of the conference

must have thought that as one who had some first-hand experience of the

international peace movement, I'd be able to inform the conference on the

activities of the various groups in different parts of the world working to

educate their own constituencies on the horrors of war and the arms race,

particularly of nuclear armaments. They may have been of the view that such

information might strengthen their anti-war convictions and motivate them to

do more to oppose their government's policies, and to influence others to do

the same.

I accepted the invitation for two reasons. One, I had been in touch with some

of the material being produced by peace education wings of many peace

organisations and also with some special groups that had been set up to do

investigations, in the field of nuclear weapons and their effects—social,

economic and medical. Some groups were specifically working to provide

material for the use of teachers in schools. Much of this material, I knew, was

admirable. I thought that preparing for the talk would, be a good excuse to

gather more up-to-date information for my own benefit too.

The other reason was of more importance. Tremendous admiration though I

have for the work of the movement as a whole, I have always been feeling

that, in spite of the hard work of so many devoted people it is not having the

desired impact, either on the governments or on the population in general.

Even though-sample polls often show that a good proportion of the population

is against nuclear weapons, the reality is that when votes have to be cast the

very political parties which are deep into the arms race always get the

majority to form governments.

I came to the conclusion that the message we are giving to the public about

the insanity of war and its preparations, although worries the people, it has not

sunk into their minds and hearts; it has not been transmitted to that region of

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their mind which deals with faith and trust, and which compels one to act. The

message remains rather superficially imposed on their personality.

Hence I decided to place the problem before the conference along with a

counter message which I had read sometime ago. It was a message sent by

Maria Montessori to a peace conference in Paris in 1937. The gist of the

message was that if the human potential were to be fully considered and

developed there would not be any need for special encouragement to people

for disarmament and opposition to war; because they would then not endure

the degradation and moral corruption which is responsible for it. Active

opposition to war would have then become part of their being.

In this book I shall try to analyse the essence of the message and put forward a

proposal for action which might help in creating conditions whereby the

processes of internalization of essential information will become natural and

habitual. In other words I wish to propose that peace education, as we

generally understand it, could be effective only if the processes of education,

at all stages of development of the individual, would be geared to the

consideration of all human potentials, cultivating the habits which would reject

all immorality and the dehumanizing elements of war.

Peace is not just the absence of war. Nor can there be peace in the world if

nations1 live in tension with each other. We have an example right here in the

South Asian region. There is nothing to suggest that India and Sri Lanka could

go to war in the foreseeable future, but surely at present there is no peace

between them. Nor is there the remotest possibility of Ireland and Britain going

to war on the issue of Northern Ireland, although it has to be admitted that

between them there is a great deal of tension. The same applies in global

terms too.

There are conflicts, and there will always remain conflicts in our world. Until

now war or the threat of war has been the major method of resolving

international conflicts especially when they become acute. We must realise

that though it is less dangerous than war, living by oneself in isolation cannot

be the way to mutual peace. A latent conflict has always a possibility of

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becoming potential. Nor can war be anymore the way to conflict resolution.

War today has become a guarantee for disaster to both the parties. Moreover,

nothing can bring peace as long as the opposing sides go on thinking of gaining

advantage over one another. That kind of attitude is sure to escalate tension.

The only way to peace, therefore, is to take a final decision that advantage or

no advantage, living cooperatively is the only way to our survival as humans.

The above principle is generally accepted in relation to peace within families.

Therefore, why should not the same apply to the larger family—the human

family. Why is then so much talk about reduction of arms, bargaining with each

other as to how many war-heads and tanks one would reduce, if the other side

reduces so many, etc. etc.? Why then is the stupidity called MAD race?2 How

can deterring the other side by having more deadly weapons in greater

numbers, bring peace ? Even if the insane theory of deterrence can be seen to

be working, which is not true, it cannot guarantee enduring peace, which

ought to be the goal. Although disarmament, even partial, can be useful in

diverting some expenditure to social services and for eradicating poverty and

disease, it cannot be a surety for making the world peaceful. That will happen

only if nations take the final decision to abandon war and violence in favour of

nonviolent resolution of conflict. Disarmament as such, at its best, can bring

that peace which is based on the principle of live and let live; but adherence

to nonviolence will introduce and enhance the spirit of living in mutual

cooperation.

Peace cannot be effective if it is considered only in terms of international

relations. There must be peace within a country or a society, for a peaceless

community cannot live in cooperation with other communities. Peace

education, therefore, has to address itself also to the problem of the internal

peace of a society. It should define the essentials of a peaceful society. To be

able to explain it better, I will endeavour to first describe what I think does not

make a society peaceful: A social order which encourages violent responses

from individuals against other individuals and which tries to solve its internal

problems by the use of violence and terror cannot make a peaceful society.

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Let us look at the issue from a different angle. It is not difficult to envisage a

society in which people behave in an orderly way; where rather than solving

conflicts on the principle of might is right people go to law-courts in an effort

to settle their disputes; where there is fair amount of police vigilance to

minimise crimes such as stealing, abducting of children and flesh-trade; where

it is made easy enough for people, especially women and children, to move

about without fear of mugging, rape or abduction; a society in which people

have not to bribe to buy a few bags of cement or fertilizers; a society in which

people prepared to do their day's work honestly, have not to live in want. If,

however, all this happens on account of the notion that they are being watched

by the "big brother", it will not be an order which is peaceful, precisely

because fear would be the ordering principle of that society.

In other words the absence of crime and physical violence among people at

large is not a sufficient enough condition for the creation of a peaceful world.

A total absence of the "big brother" is another basic requirement for such a

change. Violence is usually understood to mean bodily injury inflicted

deliberately. The injury can vary in degrees. It can be anything from a minor

hurt to a most painful death. It can also be a prison sentence, whereby one is

physically prevented from living a normal life. But violence can also be

psychological the effect of which can be as painful as that of physical violence.

There is yet another kind of violence—that which is built into the social

structure itself. Apparently these different forms of violence have the same

impact on human relations. Killing a person by a bullet, on the electric chair or

by starvation is practically the same. In one case death occurs instantaneously,

in the other case gradually. Both are means of physical destruction. Economic

deprivation, racial and sexual discrimination, the caste system as it is today in

India or other parts of the world, all make the society violent, for all these

practices are destructive to human life and human relations.

There is a parable in the New Testament (Mathew, XX 1-14) in which the lord

of a vineyard employs labourers as and when they come to seek work during

the day. AH of them finish work at the same hour but all receive a penny each

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for whatsoever time they might have worked. Moreover, those at the bottom

who started work in the last hours of the day receive their wages first. In the

evening the lord asks his steward: "Call the labourers and give them their hire";

which he has decided will be the same for everyone. It is a beautiful concept,

particularly when one thinks of the period which the parable relates to. But

can it apply to the present situation?

The snag about the Biblical parable is that it required a "lord of the vineyard"

to order an equal distribution of wages to all the workers. As long as there are

people at the top to take decisions there will be the need for stewards and the

like to see that the decisions of the lords are carried out effectively and

promptly. It is risky to depend upon a lord, even if he is a benevolent one, for

in a society in which decisions are made at the top, there will have to be

special institutions to enforce those decisions.

Two of the essential institutions then would have to be the police and the

military. In other words, society will continue to have a pyramid-like structure,

of which the military will be the final sanction, implying thereby that it cannot

become peaceful, hence warless, unless the people can get the lords, the

decision-makers, off their backs.

How can we do that? By violence? The answer to this question could have been

'yes' about a hundred years ago. Today it can no longer be given in the

affirmative, because violence in the modern society has become a self-

perpetuating force. It goes on escalating unendingly. Its character has

drastically changed, and so also our political thinking. Traditional politics have

become power oriented and not directed to the good of all and each of the

individuals in the society. The individual has lost self-confidence and feels

totally helpless as an actively participating member of the community—one

who has the possibility of taking decisions on matters that concern one's own

life.

Most political philosophers draw blue prints of their Utopias. They then try to

construct social structures on the basis of these blue prints which require

people to fit into set patterns, thus denying any creativity on their part. Such

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kinds of structures are bound to end up in authoritarian and violent social

relationships, growth of power politics and militarism— a source of war.

1. Existence of the nation state is at present a reality, but hopefully we will reach the

stage which Vinoba Bhave called Jai Jagat. He also recognised only two units: the

village and the world.

2. MAD=(Mutual Assured Destruction) a disarmament jargon coaajctci with the theory of

deterrence.

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PART ONE

PEACE EDUCATION —an overview

1 Peace Research

Total military expenditure of countries the world over is well above 1.3 billion

U.S. dollars1 a day. In addition to this a very large amount is spent on just the

propaganda for recruitment. Expenditure for informing the population about

the services and security the military provides must also come to an enormous

amount. As compared to this sum, the resources available to voluntary

organisations and individuals for doing research into the causes and effects of

war and for disseminating such information to the wider public is almost

negligible. Except for a very few peace research outfits, e.g. SIPRI (Stockholm

International Peace Research Institute supported by the Swedish Government),

peace organisations all over the world work on shoe-string budgets; the money

raised for their work being given generally by concerned individuals. Most of

them manage with only one or two staff members with much of their work

being carried out by volunteers. Yet, their output is impressive both in quantity

as well as quality.

In this chapter we shall try to have an overview of the work for peace and

against war being done by various bodies under different categories.

Peace Research

In 1955 Theo Lentz published Towards a Science of Peace. It was probably the

first work which tried to point out "the intimate relationship between science

and peace, in the full sense of scientific method, knowledge, attitude, and

application on the one hand and, on the other, the peaceable realization of

human possibilities through peaceful cooperation, as well as the mere

prevention of war".2 Lentz emphasised on the need for exploring the potentials

of human sciences, such as social sciences, psychology and anthropology, with

a view to discovering better methods of social and economic cooperation and

greater human fulfilment. He pointed out that the tragic plight of mankind is

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due to the ever widening discrepancy in the development of physical power

and social harmony, which makes conflict more intolerably dangerous and

disastrous. To this the answer is scientific research, a process in which

disciplined curiosity makes the utmost use of intelligence to formulate,

develop and progressively answer relevant questions by the aid of purposeful

observation and reason.

Lentz stressed that peace action "cannot take place unless individuals act, and

act cooperatively. Pertinent behaviour on the part of a few 'common men of

uncommon courage' in each of many communities could generate dynamic

nuclei of humanistic and scientific sanity. Such grass-root groups, if suitably

designed and adequately 'advertised' could add up to a World-Wide Society for

the Promotion of a Science of Peace"3. In the last chapter of the book he stated

that the most immediate need of this world is the elimination of war. He put

forward seventeen propositions, which gave a practical programme, for the

acquisition of knowledge necessary for a speedy and deliberate elimination of

the unbearable curse of war and for the redirection of our intellectual

resources that might quickly produce this knowledge. There was a great need

for faith in democracy but democracy without science, as Lentz said, was

stupidity. Similarly, science without democracy was insanity. "Faith in the

discoverability of such knowledge is conditioned by our faith inhuman intelli -

gence and our faith in science or the improvability of intellectual method. All

this is conditioned by our faith in democratic motivation to channel properly

our intellectual energy and to redirect our scientific enterprise in ways that

will yield the necessary knowledge..."4. He rightly said that survival requires

functional unity of our faith in science and our faith in democracy.

At the end of the book Lentz extended an invitation to his readers to send their

reactions as well as constructive suggestions for the next best steps.

"Together", he said, "we may yet hold back the curtain of darkness that

threatens to engulf our civilization. Let us act upon our faith in man and his

destiny. For purposes of moral support we need to become more fully aware of

each other"5.

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I do not know how many responses Lentz received to his invitation, but I have

no doubt that his book gave to many people a deep insight into the question of

peace and war, which, until then, had remained more or less on sentimental

level. Many peace activists moved into the field of peace research. The early

sixties saw the setting up of peace research institutes such as the one in

Norway and the other in Canada. In 1959/60 the Institute for Gandhian Studies

had already been started in India. These institutes published peace research

journals along with other material.

Most well known and notable in this field is the Stockholm Institute for Peace

Research, Sweden (SIPRI), set up in 1966. It is an independent institute for

research into problems of peace and conflict, with particular attention to the

problem of disarmament and arms regulation. It has been publishing authentic

material in the form of books, brochures and pamphlets in large quantity,

which includes the World Armoment and Disarmament SIPRI Yearbook,

probably the most comprehensive reference book coming out every year since

1968.

By the end of the sixties dozens of universities, especially in the United States

of America, started their own peace programmes, peace centres, nonviolent

conflict resolution, etc. Lentz had also underlined the need for cooperation

among peace researchers. He asked: "If survival depends upon peace, if peace

depends upon peace know-how, if the know-how depends upon peace research,

and if peace research depends upon our faith in peace research—upon what

does this faith depend?"

"It depends", he said, "above all else, upon inter-communication among those

who possess enough of it to say so. The great danger is that those who believe

will not recognise one another. The great need is for the believers to pool their

moral and intellectual and financial resources. He who has discovered his faith

in the scientific search for peace must find other believers. Contact with

others of like faith is indispensable on two counts. First, morale is vital.

Awareness of and confidence in others of similar intention is essential to one's

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courage. Second, war elimination is a cooperative job. Cooperation is never

possible without consciousness of common purpose"6.

In the past two decades interchange of ideas and information has grown to a

considerable proportion. Much has happened in terms of internationalising this

activity. Publication of information with analysis and proposals is being done by

many organisations, and such material is piling up in the libraries and archives

of peace research centres, peace movements and private collections, which

have come into existence in hundreds all over the world, especially in the

West. A good proportion of this literature is of high quality—authentic and

convincing. It is also widely and easily available.

In the academic world too there is now a trend towards working on this issue.

Quite a good number of post-graduate students have been taking up research

work for their masters or doctorate theses on topics concerning with War,

Peace and Nonviolence. The film on Gandhi by Attenborough aroused much

interest in nonviolence, thus resulting in the formation of Gandhi/nonviolence

study circles in several colleges and universities.

It might be relevant to mention that many of the workers in the peace research

field have been peace activists before taking to research work. What this shows

is that activists in the peace movement have been conscious about the

theoretical aspects of their work and aware of the need for looking at it in a

scientific manner. However, once one goes into the academic field it becomes

difficult to continue to be an activist or even keep in touch with the practical

problems of the movement. Is it also likely that in today's given situation

academic work kills the spirit of activism? Whatever may have been the reason

during the first decade of the peace research a gap between the two became

evident. This gap still continues, though it has become somewhat narrow. It

can be attributed to the tendency among researchers in general to consider

activists incapable of an analytical approach to their own work. On the other

hand, the activists think that the lot of peace research is too theoretical and

has very little to do with the actual problems they face.

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Towards the end of the sixties some of the leaders of the two sides became

conscious of this drift and started establishing a dialogue between themselves

with a view to bringing them together and giving each other mutual help.

Whether they have come together or not is a difficult question to answer, but

it is true that more and more peace research workers are becoming aware of

the need to make their work movement- oriented. More than anything else the

nuclear issue is making it essential that peace researchers in every field look at

the issue via their own discipline and do 'something' about it. It is this doing

'something' that will and to some extent is filling up the gap.

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18 training for peace and nonviolence: resource material

2.1 training manuals

Every peace action, to be carried out efficiently, needs some kind of training,

be it in the form of short or more thorough briefing. The seriousness and the

extent of training depends upon the situation and character of the planned

campaign or action. Nonviolent struggles in India developed their own

traditions and methods of training volunteers. The Land Gift movement

inspired thousands of men and women, many of whom already had some

experience of the national freedom struggle. Nevertheless, a much larger

number of them had to learn new methods of campaigning which were

specially suited for the collection and distribution of land to the landless. Some

training literature was newly produced and made widely available. Similarly,

when some of the North American groups started adopting nonviolence in their

struggle for peace and justice, a tradition of training and with it literature

began to develop. Charlie Walker's handbook, Organising for Nonviolent Direct

Action, first published in mimeographed form in early 1961, as far as my

information goes, was the first such material produced in the West. In October

the same year, the Committee of Hundred in Britain published Anthony

Weaver's booklet: Schools for Nonviolence. It posed the different questions an

advocate of nonviolent civil disobedience should ask and prepare reading lists

from which answers could be found. The booklet served the purpose of

widening the scope of studies in nonviolence. ]n India Narayan Desai published

A Hand Book for Shanti Sainiks in India, more or less on the lines of the Walker

booklet, but later, Desai improved it on the basis of his own experience as a

trainer. The black movement in the South of the U.S. must have also developed

such literature during its 1955/56 Montgomery bus strike. Apparently,

systematic training sessions in conjuction with their campaigns were organised

by them.

Until 1965, however, these efforts remained somewhat localised and on a small

scale. In the summer of 1965 an international conference on training in

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nonviolence took place in Italy organised by the War Resisters' International.

The WRI also started publishing a quarterly bulletin7 as a coordinating organ for

the nonviolent training movement. This was probably the beginning of the

movement of training in nonviolent action, which is now playing a significant

role in the nonviolent movement against war and injustice. It has spread

internationally and has become a point of contact and mutual cooperation

between various nonviolent groups in different parts of the world. Again in

June/July 1970, the WRI organised an international seminar on the subject to

review the various types of training that was being given in different regions

and for different situations. A memoranda was prepared asking the peace

movements "to collect written materials on training and to1 publish certain

materials; to develop an inventory of trainers and researchers to plan, evaluate

training programmes and methods and exchange ideas ; to help in arranging

tours whose central focus is training; to aid in exchange of trainers; to help link

training and action movements; to help develop training programmes for

transnational actions; and to sponsor and arrange regional and/or international

training conferences.8

The quality of literature published by several training groups is high. In its

understanding of the issues, both political as well as social, it has reached a

good-level of sophistication. In quantity it is so great that even if a

comprehensive bibliography were to be attempted it would become out-dated

in no time, as more and more material is being rapidly produced and the old

one updated.

It might be useful to look into some of the points about its quality. For

instance, the Movement for a New Society, U.S., published a manual with over

three hundred and fifty pages in 1978. The Resource Manual for Living

Revolution was prepared by a group of four members of MNS—Coover, Deacon,

Esser and Moore. In some ways, it reflects the same spirit that one feels in

reading Lentz. Its Preface starts with the following words: "This manual is for

people who are concerned or angered by the deterioration of our society and

who, because they have some sense that their efforts can have an effect for

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change, are looking for tools to transform it. It is a working reference for those

who are prepared to act to create a better life for themselves and others." The

authors are peace activists who say that the manual is a reflection of

themselves in process. "'The tools in the manual are ones which we have used

in our own organising and growth efforts. We have tried to convey throughout

the book that the building of a fully human society is complex and will be long

and demanding, but that it can be done by people working together and

supporting each other." The group realizes that the way to peace is a tough one

and cannot be covered overnight. But they are inspired people, highly

optimistic, who believe in scientific methods and the need for cooperative

processes.

The MNS manual covers a very wide range of human and organisational factors

for the training of individuals and groups interested in nonviolent social

change, for short term as well as long term campaigning. It helps in studying

case- histories of past nonviolent actions round the world; working out one's

own political analyses, theories of social change and vision of a new society on

the one hand, and on the other, it gives guidance in techniques of group

management, conflict resolution, creating new tools, inter-communication,

public relations, and skills required in running groups, centres, offices,

communal life, public speaking, etc. An important feature of the manual is

that it fosters a rational approach and tries to .convey to the prospective

trainee that whenever a problem is to be faced it is essential to go into the

source of the trouble. For instance, in the section on developing a theory, it

says, "A thoughtfully developed theory for change is of key importance for

effective action. When the going gets rough it is those with a theory and vision

who tend to stay with the struggle and keep their action consistent with their

original intentions..."9

When examining a theory of social change, the manual asks that one consider

factors such as: the nature of human beings; the nature and source of power,

truth and authority; the analysis of the causes of social problems; the role of

individuals and institutions in social change; the vision of the way it can or

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should be; and the mechanisms of -change, existing and potential. In other

words the authors have not only suggested techniques, but have also tried to

develop a philosophical and critical approach on which to base action

programmes. They have included a constructive programme which would give

the group and its members the moral authority to mobilize community opinion

in their favour.

Another manual is the one called Alternatives to Violence Training Manual, a

programme for prison residents, designed as a loose-leaf binder in which new

pages can be added or changed with more updated ones. Produced by the

Alternatives to Violence Programme, New York, it is a constantly growing

handbook—periodically updated with material which grows with the growing

practical experience of the people who are working in prison situations. The

basis on which this group works is called Transforming Power, which is "a spirit

of caring. To 'transform' means to 'change'. This is opening the door of the spirit

to change negatives to positives."

In the section on the use of transforming power the group aims to end

discrimination against anyone because of race, creed, economic status, lack of

education or any other person. It wants every person to have an equal

opportunity to earn his or her daily bread, to have a good education, adequate

medical service and a chance to do creative work. Above all, it seeks to bring

into the world a spirit of caring for every other person just because he or she is

a person. We believe that the miracle of life in each deserves to be revered

and cultivated by all."

"We believe that the prime method for accomplishing this revolution should be

to draw out of people a new spirit of caring. Without this, destruction of the

system would be futile and will only give rise to another system based on

exploitation which could be even worse than the present one... The end of a

beloved community could not be achieved by a non-caring means like violent

destruction of the system..."

"There is a way by which we can test whether this spirit of caring is our bag;

that is whether we want to make it a part of our life style. This test is to

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examine our deepest feelings relating to life. We can look at living things from

lower to higher forms, and decide at what point our feelings of caring begin.

Take, for example, a cabbage, a fly, a snake, a kitten, a chimpanzee and a

person. Think carefully about putting a knife through each one and examine

your feelings as you do it. Your feelings won't mislead you. If the idea upsets

you, you care for that kind of life. If caring is thus your basic reaction, why not

train yourself to live the way you really are —deep down?"10

There is much emphasis on the role of conscience in the methods and thinking

of this group. "Every proposed action should be tested by the question of

whether it will transform. No matter how we may feel outraged by some evils

or wish to express our hatred for the wrong doer, we must test our public

reactions to these evils by asking whether such reactions will be likely to

change the minds of our opponents or of the neutral public. If not, we should

devise more effective reactions. But if we wish to abolish evil, it cannot be our

conscience which urges us to do something that will make it worse. It may be

our indignation, our anger, our carelessness, but certainly not our conscience.

In the use of transforming power, therefore, the question whether tactics will

transform is a question of conscience itself—a question of substance bearing

directly on our main concern for creation of the beloved community."11

The strength of the AVT manual is its greater emphasis on developing moral

power as against physical power. It is of particular importance because the

manual is prepared for prisoners, who, by definition, are generally subjected

to more intense violent treatment than the average person outside prisons.

The above two manuals illustrate the high quality of the contents and

techniques which are being developed by the training movement. For those

interested, such literature is available widely and in abundance.

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2.2 handbooks and other publications

There are now innumerable manuals, handbooks, and resource material that

provide the kind of information which strengthens arguments against nuclear

weapons. The State keeps much information about matters of defence away

from the public. In most countries such information is considered classified

which is not to be disclosed to the public. There are laws against such

disclosures, carrying harsh penalties, even upto that [of treason. Yet, the

peace movement thinks that it becomes absolutely necessary to gather such

information which concerns the survival of the human race against nuclear war.

A section of the activists and researchers within the movement have been

constantly collecting and disseminating such information publicly. For example

three lecturers of the Peace Studies School of the University of Bradford wrote

a book entitled As Lambs to the Slaughter, dealing with facts about nuclear

war and weaponry. It is an encyclopaedic report which attempts "to present

information concerning nuclear weapons, their availability and likely effects,

the increasing risk of nuclear war and the failure of attempts at nuclear

disarmament. It is primarily a factual account but we also put forward some

proposals for approaches to global nuclear disarmament proposals which we

believe are as realistic as they are necessary."12

The authors state: "Decisions on defence are made by a few members of the

Cabinet. Yet they represent the result of heavy 'expert' pressures applied to

them by military, technological and manufacturing interests. They also reflect

the political doctrines of the party in power and considerable pressure from

the United States. Thus we have been committed to the highly controversial £6

billion Trident system. Yet we, the people, who have to pay for such systems,

and, more importantly, live or die by their consequences, neither we nor our

elected parliamentary representatives, nor even the full cabinet are

consulted."18

The book also raises a question and answers it: ..."What reasons have we to

think that those politicians, who, in successive cabinets, have given Britain

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almost the lowest standard of living in Europe, the highest unemployment, the

worst civil violence and who have failed us in so many ways are likely to be any

more competent in the field of defense? Do they merit our confidence? I doubt

it. When I hear our arms production defended in terms of its contribution to

our balance payments, through sales to the Third World, I feel ashamed and

enraged. What kind of morality is this? What form of logic drives the leaders of

the Super Powers to arm, rather than talk? Are they exemplifying the classic

political need to divert attention from crumbling domestic policies by focusing

it abroad?"14 The "report" recommends that we should interest ourselves in our

own survival and reject the propaganda of officialdom and the misleading

smooth talk such as contained in the Home Office publication Protect and

Survive (There will be a brief mention of this pamphlet later). As Lambs to the

Slaughter has some drawings which make the arguments effective and

interesting reading, and it can be profitably used for high school students to

teach them about nuclear weapons.

Another publication, The Disarmament Handbook, gives a detailed account of

military technology and its organisation. It does not claim any original insight,

as the author himself says, but it does "contain a mass of information and ideas

from other people...". According to Andrew Wilson who is an Associate Editor

of 'The Observer' (London) the aim of the handbook is "to give everyone

engaged in fighting the arms race (or following moves to reverse it) a

compendium of facts with which to be as expertly informed as any professional

who opposes them, whether on technology, military organisation or the logic of

nuclear deterrence : in short, the disarmers' equivalent of what the British

army once called its Field Service Pocket Book, a stand-by for every

situation."16

The first chapter of the Wilson Handbook, Psychology of War, goes into the

theories of aggression. The second deals with the theories and history of war

and also gives a list of 158 wars fought in the 20th century. The book contains

notes—though briefly—sometimes too briefly, on most of the questions one

thinks of at the time of organising a campaign or preparing a statement against

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the menace of war. Wilson also discusses non-military alternatives for national

defence. In the postscript he writes: "...One thing I knew was that there could

be no situation in which I or anyone else would be morally justified in pressing

the trigger that would incinerate millions of fellow human beings. And if that

was so, what had I been doing by supporting a system that—for its very

credibility—was designed to ensure that the trigger would be pressed when the

time comes?..."

"If I were today just planning my life, instead of having enjoyed myself as a

journalist, I would ' surely seek a place in that branch of peace studies

concerned with the dynamics of conflict. Not only is it the most fundamental

form of research needed for our survival; it is also, I believe, the most exciting

intellectually.

"But important as research may be to the long-term solution of our problem of

how to survive as a species, we are not all academics; nor can we afford to

wait for the emergence of some general Keynsian-type peace theory before

doing something about it.

'The time remaining in which to avert disaster is visibly short. To say that we

have only x years is to propose an impossible exactitude. Better to say that

what we have depends on our immediate efforts.

"All we can do immediately, and must do, is to apply a brake: to buy time, and

then more time, in which to find a formula for international co-existence, such

as we have found, despite our Hobbsenian nature, for civic co-existence. This

is not something that can be carelessly left to political leaders—least of all

those responsible for our welfare at the time this is written.

"Action for survival has to begin with our own individual efforts—in a dialogue

of persuasion with our fellow citizens, in standing up to be counted in public

demonstrations, in active membership of any one of the many organisations

dedicated to the promotion of peace ; above all, when elections are on us, in

the giving or withholding of our vote."16

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In 1976 the Government of Britain published: Protect and Survive, which

recommended methods of making "your home and your family as safe as

possible under nuclear attack", and described methods of building make-shift

to more sophisticated shelters. Its advice was to stock enough food for

fourteen days, keep a portable radio with spare batteries, a tin opener, warm

clothing, pots and pans and a portable toilet seat etc. But its first sentence

was: "Everything within a certain distance of a nuclear explosion will be totally

destroyed. Even people living outside, this area will be in danger from heat and

blast...:."17

How could a responsible government publish such a handbook, "knowing full

well that there is in fact no protection whatsoever against a nuclear attack,

that in an all-out nuclear attack millions would have perished even before they

can retaliate with their nuclear arsenal. Yes, some people were deluded into

building shelters in their homes. Once I asked a friend: why was she going to

build one? She felt embarrassed and said that it was only for her psychological

satisfaction. She knew that the idea of a shelter, particularly the one that she

could afford, was ridiculous, a waste of that money which could be made

better use of by the anti-nuclear weapons movement.

Soon after this booklet appeared in the market, E.P. Thompson, the well-

known historian and a leader of the anti-nuclear campaign, wrote Protest and

Survive. It is an inspired and informed answer to the propagators of nuclear

weapons and those who talk of these weapons as the only deterrent against the

possibility of a third world war. I quote just a few paragraphs from the 30-page

pamphlet. Thompson writes: "I must first explain that the strategy of nuclear

warfare has now become a highly specialized field of study, which has

developed its own arcane vocabulary, together with a long list of acronyms:

CEP, MIRV (multiple independently targeted re-entry vehicle), IBCM (inter-

continental ballistic missile), ECCM (electronic counter-counter measure),

MEASL (Marconi-Elliott Avionics Systems), and as the plum of them all MAD

(mutual assured destruction).

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"In this vocabulary nuclear weapons are sub-divided into several categories:

strategic—the inter-continental missiles of immense range and inconceivable

destructive power, which may be submarine-launched or sited in silos and on

tracks behind the Urals or in the Nevada desert: theatre (long, middle or short

range), which may be bombs or missiles, carried on aircraft or permanently

sited, or moved around at sea or on land on mobile launch platforms; and

tactical. Sometimes NATO strategists refer to 'theatre' weapons as 'tactical'

ones, and sometimes they are referring to smaller battlefield nuclear (and

neutron) devices—land-mines, artillery shells, etc., which could be mixed in

with "conventional weapons".

"These several degrees of weaponry form 'a chain of deterrence', Mr. Pym, the

Defence Secretary, spoke in the House of Commons on Jauuary 24, (1980) of an

interlocking system of comprehensive deterrence...a clear chain of terrible

risk', with the pistol and the grenade at one end and the MX missile at the

other...18

Thompson does not suggest "that Russian missiles are not multiplying, nor that

they are not menacing to us. They are both. My point has been to illustrate the

logic of deterrence; and to emphasise that the whole basis of our information

is corrupt, and that every official statement, on both sides, is either an official

lie or a statement with direct propagandist intent which conceals as much as it

reveals."19

"The entire 'debate' in Britain was conducted in the press and television on the

basis of letting the people believe that there was a massive buildup of Soviet

SS-20s and Backfire bombers, all aimed at 'NATO' (but with the United States,

the dominant power in NATO, removed from the equation), and that NATO's

programme of nuclear weapon 'modernization' was a tardy and inadequate

response to this. Nothing at all was mentioned, in the general press, as to this

little addition to the Western sum ("2,000 or 3,000 missiles") as part of "a huge

strategic triad."20

Thompson says that he does not want to write about the consequences of

nuclear war at length because "at some point very deep in their consciousness,

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readers already know what the consequences of these weapons are. This

knowledge is transmitted to children even in their infancy, so that as they run

around with their space weapons and death rays they are re-enacting what

happened thirty years before they were born."

"There is, however, one area of convenient forgetfulness in this inherited

memory. The moment of nuclear detonation is remembered vaguely, as a

sudden instant of light, blast and fire, in which instantly tens of thousands of

lives were quenched. It is thought of as a stupendous but instantaneous

moment of annihilation, without pain or emotional suffering."

"But this is not accurate. It is now estimated that 140,000 were killed "directly"

by the bomb on Hiroshima, and 170.000 by that on Nagasaki,...But the bombs

were dropped on August 6 and 9; and the accounts for immediate casualties

were closed on December 31, 1945. This reflects the fact that a very great

number of these deaths especially those from burns and radioactivity—took

place slowly, in the days and weeks after the event..."21

"After this we still have to consider the future of tens of thousands who have

died subsequently from the after-effects of that day—chiefly leukemia, various

cancers, and diseases of the blood and digestive organs. Some hibakashu suffer

from the direct consequences of wounds and burns, others from premature

senility, others from blindness, deafness and dumbness, others are incapable of

working because of nervous disorders, and many are seriously mentally

deranged..."22

I have come to the view that a general nuclear war is not only possible but

probable, and that its probability is increasing. We may indeed be approaching

a point of no return when the existing tendency or disposition towards this

outcome becomes irreversible"23

E. P. Thompson appeals: "We must generate an alternative logic, an opposition

at every level of society. This opposition must be international and it must win

the support of multitudes. It must bring its influence to bear upon the rulers of

the world. It must act, in very different conditions, within each national state;

and on occasion, it must directly confront its own national state apparatus."24

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2.3 movement journals and newsletters

Peace journals, the number of which would probably be quite large, published

in various languages, are of prime importance for the propagation of peace and

anti-war activities. Their importance is not so much in terms of providing

information as such, but in giving some idea to the public, as to what is

happening in the peace movement. Their aim is to present new perspectives

and options open to people to organise themselves in opposition to war and its

supportive institutions. These journals and newsletters, like most nonviolent

peace movements themselves, try to inculcate hope and they project plans and

programmes of campaigns by which that hope can be materialized.

Most of these journals give details of activities, calender of events, opportunity

for open discussion and ideological dialogue. Though a selected list has been

included at the end of the book, I shall describe a few in some details here. For

instance the message conveyed by Manas and Peace News can keep our

imagination and courage alive.

Manas projects a philosophy of life which is fundamentally peaceful and which

generates understanding between people and people and the spirit of peace

and nonviolence. Published from Los Angeles, USA, as a weekly, but with a gap

of two months in between—July and August, it is in its thirty-seventh year. It

has kept up its looks and quality through all these years.

Peace News is now an independent fortnightly. It was first started in the mid-

thirties as an organisational weekly journal of the British Peace Pledge Union.

It represents the radical nonviolent/pacifist point of view, and tries to put

forth a perspective of a nonviolent revolution for social change. It is a

newsletter, a forum, an organ for intellectual debate and a vehicle of

community living with good coverage on the feminist movement, movement for

gay liberation, ecology, appropriate technology, etc.

The Gandhi Peace Foundation of India has been publishing. Gandhi Marg in

English and Hindi since the late fifties. Its emphasis is on the different aspects

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of Gandhi's work and thought. Presently both the editions come out as

monthlies.

The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament publishes Sanity. Started at the time

the CND was founded in the late fifties, it is presently the major organ of the

anti-nuclear campaign in U.K. Of the several newsletters available today ,

Disarmament Campaigns is an international monthly newsletter on actions

against the arms race. Started about five years ago under the auspices of

Nonviolent Alternatives, Belgium (an international organisation, no longer

functional), the Newsletter has continued to appear regularly and is becoming

increasingly useful. It is now based in The Hague, Netherlands. Its main

function is to report on the issues of disarmament—general as well as nuclear

and also to list a calendar of forthcoming events. Additionally, it gives latest

information on regional problems. For example, its May 1984 issue takes up

Latin America: which country there receives arms from where and what kind of

campaigns are being organised by the peace movements of the exporting

countries. It has given an Arms Export/Import Chart with much details. One

thing important to know about this newsletter is that it is oriented to nonviol-

ence, and hopefully it will continue to be so. It is an independent journal, both

financially as well as editorially.

Paz Y Justicia is a monthly newsletter published by SERVICIO, which is the main

organisation in Latin America for coordinating the work of all the non-violent

movements. It comes out from Argentina in Spanish. The journal of the Italian

nonviolent movement, Azione Nomiolenta is oriented to the wider movement,

but its emphasis is on radical nonviolence and anti-militarism. Resurgence, a

monthly from Britain started in the sixties as an organ of 'the fourth world', is

important for its approach to the building of a counter-culture based on

nonviolence and decentralism.

Peace Education Newsletter in Britain is published jointly by four major peace

groups. Its Spring '81 issue, for example, is full of information on the arms

race. One of the articles is a historical note on the progress of the

disarmament movement; one is on the nuclear arsenals and their potentials;

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another is on the question of alternatives to military industry; and yet another

on alternative to military defence. This newsletter is also directed to schools

and contains useful teaching suggestions. It is so well planned with work-sheets

multiple choice questionnaires etc. that any teacher interested in the peace

issue should find it useful. An imaginative teacher would easily be able to

correlate the information in his or her class, even within the framework of the

existing school syllabus.

There is indeed an increasing interest in peace education among other groups,

namely those engaged in development, world studies and world government.

The World Studies Resource Centre in Leicestershire, Britain, brought out a

special issue of World Studies on peace education. It showed that more and

more people are worried about the insane way governments are acting on

matters which relate to human survival. Quite justifiably they think that

dissemination of information is a useful way of expressing anxiety and

indignation.

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2.4 audio-visual material

The first organisation that comes to my mind is NARMIC (National

Action/Research on the Military Industrial Complex), a project of the American

Friends Service Committee, set up at the beginning of the sixties. NARMIC

provides educational resource material and information on U.S. foreign policy

and defence. It helps activists as well as researchers engaged in action

programmes around the country. It has information on something like one

hundred largest defence contractors, a state-by-state list of more than eight

hundred firms that manufacture or export ammunition. Some of the pamphlets

the NARMIC has published are : How to research in our Local War Industry;

Atom for Peace—Atom for War; The New Generation of Nuclear Weapons;

Marketing the Nuclear Nightmare; and The Military Industrial Atlas of the

United States (a series of maps). The project has a number of audio visual

items in sets of slides, films, and video cassettes. They have also made a set of

slides called "Acceptable Risk?" and another "Sharing Global Resources".

The Concord Films Council in Britain aims to promote the use of film as a tool

for social change. It has a library of films with over two thousand titles, which

can be hired by anyone interested in them. These titles cover subjects such as

peace, nuclear weapons, nuclear power, third world, and ecology. The Council

also has voluntary projection groups in more than a dozen regions of Britain.

The film van of the Peace Pledge Union in Britain is a unique enterprise. It is

always on the move showing films on the topic of peace and allied subjects in

schools, public halls, private gatherings, and street corners. Green Mountain

Post Films in Turners Falls, Mass, USA, is a similar project. They have a

catalogue of material available with them. Their aim is education, and they try

to organise their activities around the issues of nuclear power, environment

and peace. They produce and distribute media resources, primarily films.

The BBC made a short scientific film on the theme of nuclear attack on

London. It imagined a one megaton nuclear bomb bursting one mile above the

dome of the famous St. Pauls Cathedral, which is in the very centre of the city.

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By creating simulated situations it showed what would happen instantaneously,

within three seconds of the blast and after that period. It also showed what

would happen to the Cathedral, to the area of a radius of one and a half miles,

three miles, eleven miles and so on. One could see in amazement and with

great shock that the metal top of the dome not only melted, but completely

evaporated as the detonation temperature of the blast was twenty million

centigrade, similar to the temperature of the centre of the Sun. People and

things in the adjacent area had burst into flames, burnt or charred. At two

miles, trees ignited and water in the lakes reached 4000°C and the lakes dried

up.

After three seconds the Cathedral blasted and when the fireball touched the

ground millions of ton of dust rose in the form of a mushroom miles high in the

sky. This dust carrying radio activity would be then carried to great distances

by the wind generated by the blast, and which would rush at the speed of

2,000 miles an hour. Within the first three seconds about eight hundred

thousand people would die or seriously injured.

It is purely an educational film giving bare facts without any emotional high

tones. Peter Goodwin who was the consultant to the producer and script writer

Mick Jakson, has also written a book which gives these facts in great details

and though much of this information is technical, it is put in simple language.26

He writes about building shelters:

"Shelters can be effective and could save lives but there are problems.

Obviously you would have to be inside the shelter if it were to be of any use,

and this could prove difficult if there were no more than a few minutes'

warning of nuclear attack. Secondly, a shelter could only protect you for a

limited time: the usual recommended 'shelter period' is two weeks.

Unfortunately many of the problems which would probably arise in the

aftermath of nuclear strike might be even more severe after two weeks than

immediately after the attack."26

At the end of the film the commentary questions that after an all-out nuclear

attack if you are still alive in your shelter and come out after fifteen days how

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much of the world you knew will be there? Where would you get water, highly

technical medical assistance, doctors, electricity, communication? Who will tell

you the extent of what has happened? Where would you go to find food? Would

the social fabric be still there? When after two weeks you come out of the

bunker, it could be that your real problems will just begin.

Goodwin's book goes into details of the effects of nuclear weapons, including

their radiation and explains them in a language that can easily be understood

by anybody who is keen to be informed about the matter. He writes about the

possible areas of conflict which could involve nuclear weapons, and goes into

every aspects of protection against direct attack or fall out. He discusses the

way a nuclear war might start and how it could escalate. On the last page he

quotes Hamano Matsushita, a Hiroshima survivor: "It was hell all over the city. I

don't think I can describe a ten-thousandth of the reality by...telling a story. I

think only those who experienced it can understand."

A few more films warrant a special mention as useful resource material for

peace education. One of the first one among them was a documentary made

also by the BBC. It was called The War Game— also available as a book.27 The

British Government put a ban on the film, which as far as I remember

continued for quite sometime. But then due to public pressure it was released.

For the first time the British public learnt about the character of a nuclear

war.

Only a short while before the actual Three Mile Island accident took place in

the nuclear plant in Pennsylvania, Jane Fonda, the famous actress, had

produced a film called The China Syndrome, as if it was a prediction. The film

made two kinds of impact on the people; firstly, it convinced the spectator

that accidents in nuclear plants can and do take place and that they can be

devastating. Secondly, it brought home to the public that the establishment

wants to and does keep the public in total darkness about nuclear power and

its implications. In the past two decades hundreds of minor and more serious

accidents have taken place in nuclear plants all over the world, but, the

concerned governments have without exception minimised their seriousness.

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A film called Nuclear Cafe is an effective compilation of some archival material

which the makers of the film obtained from the U.S. Government sources. It

has also some fiction- type filming to document the high degree of radio

activity which hundreds of soldiers suffered from at the time of the nuclear

tests carried out by the USA. The U.S. Government had kept the facts secret

from soldiers and other staff who took part in the 'exercises'. It was later found

that several deaths were caused by radiation. Presently the matter has been

taken to the law courts by the survivers and their relatives.

In recent months a film called The Day After was shown in the USA and Europe.

It is fictional but based on scientific knowledge and estimates about the effects

of nuclear war. Although, politically it is tilted against the USSR, it has made

much impact on people who had little previous idea of what a nuclear war can

be.

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3. peace education and the popular press

Before the dropping of atom bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki the war/peace

issue and dissemination of information on it, was more or less an exclusive

activity of the anti- militarist groups, working among people likely to be

affected by military conscription. The experience of the atom bomb made war

everybody's concern. The First World War had already proved that the idea of

waging a war to stop all wars was only a sentimental dream. With this new

experience it was finally established that if a third world war took place it

would be total disaster for life as a whole on this planet. In the fifties, concern

for peace started being expressed on large scale on the streets of metropolitan

cities of Europe, Japan and North America. New peace movements came into

existence. Literature on facts about the bomb and its effects was published

and widely distributed. Exhibitions of photographs of the bomb victims—those

hundreds of thousands who died and the many more who survived but maimed

permanently—were arranged to show the urgency for action to ban the bomb.

In short, facts about the horrors of atomic war were available to a much wider

public. The popular press could not ignore the issue entirely.

It is not possible for an average person who may be interested in the subject of

war and peace to keep track of the material that has been produced and is

being produced in large quantity in different regions of the world by

specialized agencies, including the peace movement. Therefore, it is

encouraging to see that in recent years some national newspapers have felt

responsible enough to keep their readers informed about these matters. For

example, The Guardian in UK has been devoting a significant proportion of its

space to the question of nuclear power and weapons. The public debate in its

'letters to the editor' columns is also worth mentioning. Almost every second

day there is a letter on this issue. The paper has been reporting regularly on

the Sizewell Enquiry, which keeps the readers well informed about the issues

connected with the government plans for building the Sizewell-2 nuclear power

plant, e.g. its safety aspects and also its economic implications.

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The same is true of the New York Times in the USA. But more than the daily

press, some weekly and monthly journals have been more helpful, though not

enough to deserve patting on the back. One would expect the periodicals to

devote more space than what they have been giving for issues so crucial for the

survival of the human kind. In the U.S., the New York Review of Books has been

taking note of this issue perhaps more than any other journal. In India there is

an almost total absence of any public debate on the issue of either war and

peace in general or nuclear weapons in particular. It is only in the recent

months that a couple or so articles have appeared raising some questions,

about India's nuclear weapon capability. The Illustrated Weekly of India has of

late, it seems taken note of the importance of the subject. The Political and

Economic Weekly has also been occasionally publishing articles and reports on

the issue of nuclear power.

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4. peace groups of professionals

With the growth of published material on war and peace, especially in regard

to nuclear weapons, and with the unhindered escalation of the arms race

between the super powers, people at large and professionals in particular are

becoming aware of their responsibility. Take, for instance, the issue of

radiation from nuclear explosions or radioactivity which gets into the

atmosphere in regions where there are nuclear power plants. It poses a serious

problem to the medical world. Governments have always denied that radiation

from nuclear tests or from nuclear power plants, even after an accident, has

been increasing beyond the acceptable limit. They have never published true

information on the subject. Medical scientists naturally felt it their

responsibility to find out the factual information and take some steps to bring

the matter to public notice. In the fifties and sixties conscientious medical men

and women had formed already their peace groups in various countries. For

instance, in Great Britain, the Medical Association for Prevention of War was

founded in 1951, "to study causes and effects of war and psychological factors

and medical ethics in relation to war; to campaign for the transfer of resources

from preparation for war to the fight against disease and malnutrition; and to

campaign against abuses of medical science."

The Association publishes the Journal of the Medical Association for Prevention

of War twice a year. It is gratifying to note that some well-known medical

people are associated with the Association. It is a body which does not limit its

work only to the technical side of the nuclear issue. It often takes a political

and moral stand on questions of war and peace. To give a recent example, the

Editorial of the latest issue of the Journal entitled, The Stockholm Conference:

Beware the Aftermath states: "... There is now a need to be on guard against

dangerous soporifics. If the art of government is the manipulation of public

opinion, the Conference on Confidence and Security Building Measures and

Disarmament in Europe (CDE) might in due course be used by military and

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political establishments to try to send the peace movement and its supporters

back to sleep.

"The Conference opened in Stockholm on 17 January and, as was proposed

originally by France at the 1978 U.N. Special Session on Disarmament, it is to

consist of two stages: the first to build confidence and security in Europe by

providing for exchanges of military information, and the second to achieve a

reduction of armaments "from the Atlantic to the Urals". The progress of the

first stage will not be reviewed until November 1986.

"By delaying the implementation of the 1978 proposal until this year, the

Conference was, in effect, 'programmed' to start at the low ebb of East-West

relations which was known would follow the deployment of Pershing II and

Cruise. Given that the two stages of the Conference are going to take a number

of years, should we not be suspicious that it has also been 'programmed' to end

in smiling hand-shakes, back-slapping and perhaps Presidential embraces ?

"Alva Myrdal has pointed out that the history of the Super Powers' post-war

antagonism has been interrupted occasionally by the seeking of accommodation

in the act of balancing each other'. The fine words of the McCloy-Zorin Accord

of 1961 (Joint Statement by the USA and the USSR of Agreed Principles for

Disarmament Negotiations, 1961) signalled disarmament and peace to the

public, but while the peace movement went to sleep the most dangerous arms

race of all time was planned and initiated.

"What will the 'Super Powers' want from world public opinion when they reach

their next 'accommodation'? Since they will have their nuclear war-fighting

weapons for all contingencies as well as 'spy satellites' to know what is going on

world-wide... they might seek public acquiescence of their military domination

as the price of European and world peace. The threat of a physical Dark Age

following an East-West nuclear holocaust could thus come to be replaced by a

political Dark Age of global nuclear blackmail. We must beware the CDE does

not become the means by which public is manipulated into sanctioning, such a

deal. The peace movement, including its medical section, must stay awake."28

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It is a very bold statement coming from a professional group like the MAPW—a

kind of statement that one could not have expected in the fifties or even

sixties. The peace movement did go to sleep soon after the Partial Test Ban

Treaty (PTBT) was signed in 1963. In Britain particularly where the Campaign

for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) was strong, people thought that their

Government was serious about disarmament and will follow from the PTBT to a

complete ban on all kinds of nuclear tests. The CND shrunk to the size of a

small office of only one staff member. So, the alert given by the Medical

Association for Prevention of War now has come in time, and hopefully it will

be taken seriously by all parties concerned.

There is another group of medical people called Medical Campaign against

Nuclear Weapons. As the name indicates this group is mainly an anti-nuclear

group, which is allied to the CND. Whenever there is a demonstration in London

or anywhere else in the country, these groups, almost invariably, participate in

them with their own banners.

In the USA a group of medical experts function as Physicians for Social

Responsibility. They have produced a good number of reports on the question

of nuclear energy and its effects on society. They provide information packets

with scientific literature on the medical hazards of nuclear radiation—power

and weapons. Their material is sometimes published in the New York Times,

the Boston Herald, and the New England Journal of Medicine. Apart from

arranging talks and seminars in colleges, churches and civic groups, they

feature on National Public Radio, and some television networks. They have a

library of books, journals, films, tapes and video- cassettes which they use for

their public education activities, and provide these to other groups.

A group in Australia has been working on the lines of the Medical Association

for Prevention of War, Britain, and has the same name. Psychologists for Peace

is a new group in London, working for nearly two years. They hold meetings

and often take part in public demonstrations against war, particularly nuclear

war.

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British nurses have formed a group to identify the problems that their

profession will have to face in case of a nuclear war. Architects for Peace and

Civil Engineers for Nuclear Disarmament are becoming active in their field. In

the educational field there are groups such as Teachers Against War, student

groups working either within their unions or independently in {cooperation with

larger peace organisations, e.g. CND, the Peace Pledge Union and the

Fellowship of Reconciliation. Almost every country in Western Europe has such

groups. And there are church groups all over the world, some of which

concentrate on the issue of War and Peace. But most of the church groups in

Asia, Africa and Latin America relate primarily to the issues of violence,

exploitation and development. It is only recently that their attention has been

drawn to the problem of nuclear weapons, due to the increasing presence of

the nuclear arsenal of the Super Powers in their regions. The major task in this

regard for them is now to declare their regions as 'nuclear free zones'.

Australians and New Zealanders are well advanced in this respect.

Like medical scientists lawyers too have to understand the legal implications of

the present situation regarding nuclear weapons. At the time of the Vietnam

war thousands of the U.S. GIs had to be helped legally to protect them from

being persecuted by military authorities for breaking military laws or for

refusing to go on duty because they believed that the Vietnam war was unjust

and immoral. Today also there is a need for lawyers to come out with their

expertise to protect the natural rights of people. They also have a respon-

sibility to say publicly what they feel about the legitimacy of nuclear weapons.

The Rule of Law Research Centre, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA, is one of

the many groups in this category. The Centre's principal activity is research and

publication on questions of law and international organisation bearing on

security, peace, disarmament and world order. All the professional members

on the staff of the group are lawyers with specialised training in international

and comparative law.

The B.M.A. Report

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Perhaps the most significant document that has come out from the community

of professionals is the report of the British Medical Association's Board of

Science and Education. The BMA is not a peace group, far from it. It is the most

prestigious medical body in the United Kingdom and one of the most

prestigious in the world. It is very much a part of the establishment and it

controls the whole of the medical profession in Britain. This "report arose out

of work done in accordance with a resolution passed by the 1981 Annual

Representative Meeting (ARM) of the British Medical Association. Each division

of the BMA, representing doctors in a geographical area, sends representatives

to the ARM to debate issues that concern the practice of medicine and the

common health. The ARM determines Association policy. In 1981 concern was

expressed that members of the Association were being asked to participate in

medical planning for the aftermath of a nuclear war at a time when the BMA

had not formulated a policy based on a careful review of available scientific

evidence."

"After considering a composite motion aggregated from those submitted by

several divisions, the ARM passed a resolution that: The Board of Science and

Education should review the medical effects of nuclear war and the value of

civil defence in order that the British Medical Association should form a

policy."

"The Board of Science and Education accepted the terms of reference for the

enquiry suggested by the Working Party. A press statement set out the areas to

be covered by the Working Party as follows:

1. The blast, thermal, and immediate ionising radiation effects of nuclear

weapons.

2. The clinical problems, both immediate and delayed, likely to be caused by

the detonation of nuclear weapons.

3. Mortality and morbidity consequent upon varying nuclear attack patterns.

4. Immediate and long-term psychiatric effects on survivors of a nuclear attack.

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5. The probable effects of a nuclear attack on the work, organisation, structure

and management of the National Health Service.

6. Relations between the National Health Service and organisations involved in

civil defence."29

The BMA Report goes into all the details thoroughly. The Working Party invited

written evidence from relevant people and organisations; and also held

meetings with individuals. The draft report then was debated by the Board of

Science and Education before being presented to the Council of the BMA.

Although this report is specifically directed to the conditions in Britain, its

conclusions would be equally applicable to any part of the world, and therefore

I quote rather extensively from the conclusions derived at in the report:

"Nuclear War affecting the United Kingdom

The UK contains a large number of targets likely to be attacked in war and

densely populated conurbations. Potential targets and population centres are

intermixed across the UK so that it is not possible to discern areas, apart from

remote tracts in Scotland, and perhaps in North Wales, that do not place

potential targets adjacent to communities of people.

"The population density of the UK is 593 people per square mile. England has a

higher density of 920 people per square mile. The population density coupled

with the number and distribution of potential targets is unique to the UK. No

other country has so many people and so many potential targets concentrated

into so small a land mass.

"In the 1960s aggregation |of world nuclear weapons of an explosive power of

400 megatons was thought to ensure deterrence by Mutually Assured

Destruction of both the USA and the USSR essential targets. Estimates of the

total explosive power of world nuclear arsenals in 1980 varied between 25 and

50 times that quantity (10,000-20,000 megatons). Any realistic assessment of

the medical effects of nuclear war must take into account changes in

technology and military strategy. The effects of an attack in 1950 would have

been very different from the effects of an attack now or in future.

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" ... Uncertainty in areas of our report is inevitable; nobody has direct

experience of a nuclear attack of the magnitude envisaged in the future.

However, both Government and independent authorities have suggested that

an attack could well be of the order of 200 megatons or greater. Furthermore,

with one exception all the experts who contributed to the Working Party said

that a nuclear war could not be contained, but would escalate to an unlimited,

total exchange of nuclear weapons.

"There are discrepancies between the projection for blast, heat and radiation

produced by the Home Office and Scientists Against Nuclear Arms (SANA). The

latter rely on methods and figures derived for the most part from the United

States Department of Defence and the Office of Technology Assessment. We

have examined the methods for calculating the projections used by SANA and

the Working Party believes, on the evidence, it has received, that the

projections from SANA give a more realistic estimate of the blast, heat and

radiation effects of nuclear weapons. We understand that the Home Office is

currently revising its calculation.

"Civil Defence—evacuation

"Evacuation policies have their problems. Sufficient warning is needed itf order

to evacuate successfully. The economic cost to the country is tremendous and

for these reasons governments would be very unwilling to put evacuation plans

into practice. If, however, an attempt was made to evacuate the general

population, this would be seen by an enemy as part of preparation for war and

might invite preemptive strike.'*

The Report states that given the uncertainty about the size of attack,

evacuation of population in the UK is impossible. The Government's advise to

the people to stay where they are, at home, at work or at school, which

effectively acknowledges this fact. There is nowhere in the UK that can be

guaranteed as immune from the effects of any nuclear attack.

Civil Defence—shelters

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The Report on this subject is categorical that the "makeshift home shelters

advocated by the Home Office would offer the occupants only slight protection

against the blast emitted by an exploding nuclear weapon. Burns and injuries

caused by flying glass from shattered windows could be reduced but there

would be little protection against radio-active fall out. Repeated explosions

would diminish the protection against fall out."

Government's advice "to site the shelter at the central core of a house or

building carries the risk that a substantial proportion of domestic shelters are

likely to be buried when the surrounding dwelling collapses. No heavy rescue

services would be available to excavate the trapped survivors. If the shelter

was situated near an outside wall, the occupants would be more at risk from

the fall out."

"...The greater part of the country would experience blast pressures sufficient

to break windows or remove doors or roof tiles from houses, which would in

turn limit the protection, provided against fall-out. This factor is not allowed

for in the current Home Office calculations.

"Some of the commercially available prefabricated domestic nuclear shelters

could offer a degree of protection against blast and heat and all would protect

against fall-out. None of the designs reported to the Working Party appears to

have satisfactory mechanisms to eliminate dangerous combustion products of

the air being drawn into the shelter. A large- scale programme of public shelter

building would be very costly. It could be effective in reducing short-term

casualties. Any survivors would face overwhelming problems in the world into

which they emerged.

Long-term effects of a nuclear attack

"Water would be the first requirement of survivors of a nuclear attack. Food,

shelter, fossil fuels and electrical power would follow in order of priority. The

present water tanker capacity in the UK is wholly inadequate to supply

survivors with water for even basic needs. Government plans for the supply and

distribution of emergency supplies of food do not aim to provide a balanced

diet. This would have serious consequences for people requiring special diets,

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diabetic patients for example. There may not be a sufficient quantity of food

in store to tide survivors over until alternative sources could be found...

"There is a probability that the atmosphere would be highly perturbed by a

nuclear war. The large quantities of highly sunlight-absorbing, dark particulate

matter which would be produced and spread in the troposphere by the many

fires would strongly restrict the penetration of sunlight to the earth's surface

and would change the physical properties of the earth's atmosphere. It is likely

that agricultural production in the Northern Hemisphere would be severely

disrupted, so that food production for the survivors of the initial effects of the

war would be very difficult.

"Survival becomes even more difficult if stratospheric ozone depletions also

take place^ It is difficult to see how much more than a small fraction of the

initial survivors of a nuclear war in the middle and high latitude regions of the

Northern Hemisphere could escape famine and disease during the following

years.

"Other problems with implications for public health would be extensive radio -

active contamination of the environment, failure of water and sewage systems

and lack of basic drugs and medical supplies.

"It is inaccurate and misleading to suggest that after a nuclear attack on the

United Kingdom there would be a return to a rural civilization of two centuries

ago. The Working Group believes that there would be an increase in infant

mortality and communicable diseases due to infections, and deficiency diseases

caused by inadequate nutrition. The UK no longer possesses the skills or

primitive technologies which allowed our predecessors an existence with some

measure of comfort. The skills of the 20th century do not permit a return to

that style of life after a nuclear attack.

Effects on Medical Service

"We cannot forecast what sizes of weapons might be exploded over the UK.

Most current strategic and intermediate range or theatre weapons have

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explosive yields of between 100 kilotons and 5 megatons. The bomb dropped at

Hiroshima was beween 12 and 20 kilotons in size.

"The extent of damage caused by a nuclear weapon does not increase in direct

proportion to the explosive yield. Thus, to double the distance at which a given

level of damage is caused requires an eightfold increase in explosive power. It

follows that if a given total weight of attack is divided into a larger number of

smaller weapons, greater damage will be caused. The argument sometimes

advanced that more accurate lower yield weapons will result in fewer

casualties is a false one, so long as the total explosive power used in an attack

remains similar.

"The explosion of a single nuclear bomb of the size used at Hiroshima over a

major city in the UK is likely to produce so many cases of trauma and burns

requiring hospital treatment that the remaining medical services in the UK

would be completely overwhelmed. An attack with, for example, 200 megatons

represents an explosive power some 15,000 times greater than the Hiroshima

bomb; or the equivalent of forty (40) times all the conventional explosives used

in the whole of the Second World War.

"The NHS (National Health Service) could not deal with the casualties that

might be expected following detonation of a single one megaton weapon over

the UK. It follows that multiple nuclear explosions over several, possibly many,

cities would force a breakdown in medical services across the country as a

whole.

"There is no possibility of increasing the production of certain drugs in a short

period of tension before a war, and if we wish to have large quantities of blood

products available for transfusion purposes or the bulk of the present

generation of medical practitioners in the country trained for certain

eventualities, then all of these things would have to be done now and the

country must exist on a more or less permanent emergency footing.

"We believe", the Report states, "that such a weight of nuclear attack would

cause the medical services in the country to collapse. The provision of

individual medical or nursing attention for victims of a nuclear attack would

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become remote. At some point it would disappear completely and only the

most primitive first aid services be available from a fellow survivor."80

This report has been presented in an extremely calm and cool spirit. In no

sense can it be called alarming. Nor does it generate undue fear, except that it

states the facts in a totally bare and scientific manner. But the facts are so

highly gruesome that even the protagonists of the nuclear bomb are unable to

deny them. The USA and the UK Governments leadership have labelled the

peace movements as agents of the Soviets. Now the most prestigious medical

institute of the British establishment has come out with a report that shows the

hypocrisy, and deceit of their government. The BMA has totally endorsed

almost all that the scientists associated with peace movements have been

saying. The Handbook like Protect and Survive now looks like a dirty practical

joke. Can the British Home Office and their advisers dismiss, ridicule or by pass

the scenario presented by the BMA report?

Yet the Home Office sent a letter out to their twelve regional scientific

advisers in England accusing the Report of being strongly influenced by CND-

type propaganda. The regional advisers are part-time volunteers whose task is

to help advise civil defence regions on scientific and technical matters. It is

essential that they should be provided with accurate and objective

information. A member of SANA said that it was a crude attempt by the British

government to prejudice regional advisers against the BMA report.31

The last chapter of the report from which the above extracts have been taken,

starts with a statement by the authors thus: "This Chapter of the report gives a

dispassionate summary of the medical consequences that would follow the

explosion of nuclear weapons over the United Kingdom.

"We repeat that we have formed our judgements about the effects of nuclear

war on the basis of the information and evidence presented to us. Each reader

will make up his own mind on matters connected with the nuclear weapons

debate." The report certainly provides the public the sort of material which

would make them think whether their government has not been deceiving them

until now.

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Anti-peace movement campaigning by the establishment

But governments are hard enough nuts, not to be cracked easily. As soon as the

British Government realised that the anti-nuclear movement was growing

strong and is in possession of true and scientific knowledge about the bomb, it

helped set up outfits that tried to do counter propaganda. They spent a lot of

money to prove that the peace movement was either naive and was unwillingly

falling into the Soviet trap or more likely it was an agent of the Warsaw Pact

powers. One such outfit is the Nuclear Protection Advisory group which

publishes a Bulletin and lots of leaflets, booklets etc. to "guide people as to

what decisions they should take in case a nuclear war breaks out." It organises

seminars and conferences on civil defence, nuclear war and survival skills.

I once received a packet of papers in the mail from some government agency.

Its material was included in a folder with the following title: Welcome to the

nuclear power debate, and the pamphlets tried to convince the reader about

"the important issue of the use of nuclear power to meet this country's future

energy needs." It was all about nuclear power plants and their soundness in

every respect. Actually, in Britain there are quite a few outfits which campaign

against the nuclear disarmament movements. I'll mention a few, especially

those with some criptic titles. The British Atlantic Youth, is the youth wing of

the British Atlantic Committee, a major organisation providing speakers' panels

and other services to the anti-CND campaign. It has about 2,000 members.

Youth for Multilateral Disarmament is allied to the Federation of Conservative

Students. And the Committee for Peace and Freedom coordinates the work of

some anti-CND organisations.

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5. the united nations and disarmament

The Charter of the United Nations is a document sometimes mentioned and:

read in schools and social action groups. Though written as a declaration by the

people', it is, in fact, something that the original member States of the UN

adopted. In other words, it is a commitment by the Governments and not by

the people as it claims to be. The point I want to make is that they are those

very governments who are creating the menace of the war and who are part of

the arms race either globally or regionally. But, although it is not a document

prepared by the people, the peoples of the world can and must use it to

pressurize their governments to keep their promise which reads as follows:

"We, the peoples of the United Nations, determined to save succeeding

generation from the scourge of War, which twice in our lifetime has brought

untold sorrow to mankind and... to practice tolerance and live together in

peace with one another as good neighbours and to unite our strength to main-

tain international peace and security and to ensure by the acceptance of

principles and the institution of methods, that armed force shall not be used,

save in the common interest."

The first Article of the Charter outlines its purpose : "To maintain international

peace and security, and to that end : to take effective collective measures for

the prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and for the suppression of

acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by

peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and

international law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or

situations which might lead to a breach of the peace...

Although it is unfortunate and disheartening that the UN has failed in its very

purpose of existence as described above, it must be recognised that in the past

thirty years or so the UN has been able to prevent some conflicts from

escalating seriously. Here, however, we want to look into UN's efforts in the

field of peace education. In recent years the most mentionable events in this

regard, organized by the UN, were its two Disarmament Conferences. What did

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these gatherings achieve is a big question asked by many people. Yet, the

important thing is that on account of these Special Sessions disarmament has

been put on the UN agenda. And again, it should not be impossible to imagine

the UN taking more serious steps if heavily pressurized by 'the public opinion in

all the member countries.

The UN held its first Conference on Disarmament after some prominent

disarmers and several non-governmental organizations (NGOs) had demanded

such a meeting of the UN General Assembly with NGOs. The first special session

of the General Assembly devoted to Disarmament took place in 1978, in which

the Committee of Disarmament was set up. As the members of this Committee

are only government representatives, not much can be expected from it.

Notwithstanding this situation there are two positive uses of such a Committee.

Firstly, its very existence is a persistent reminder to the UN on the urgency of

the issue of disarmament. As most of the plenary meetings of the Committee

are open to the NGOs and the public, it allows anti-war and anti-nuclear

weapon campaigners to do lobbying. Secondly, such committees have to show

some work to justify their existence. Again, it is likely that some of the active

men and women on the staff and among its members are genuinely interested

in the task the Committee has undertaken. Hence, they can and often do,

produce useful material as this Committee does in the form of newsletters,

conference reports and listing of forthcoming disarmament meetings.

At the Second Special Session of the General Assembly devoted to Disarmament

held in June 1982, they launched the United Nations World Disarmament

Campaign, The Campaign started publishing, Disarmament Newsletter, of

which the first issue was brought out in June 1983. Its aim, as outlined in this

issue, is to improve the means of communication on the World Disarmament

Campaign between the United Nations, its member States and non-

governmental constituencies. The Newsletter is designed to provide the

members and the public with summaries of recent developments in disarma-

ment negotiations, a calender and preview of upcoming events and activities

within the United Nations and other international and regional bodies, and to

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highlight some of the activities of international non-governmental organisations

in support of the campaign..."

The Disarmament Newsletter reporting on the Campaign stated that the

primary purposes of the Campaign as defined by the General Assembly are

threefold : to inform, to educate and to generate public understanding and

support for the objectives of the United Nations in the field of arms limitation

and disarmament. It is to be carried out in all regions of the world in a

balanced, factual and objective manner...It should be guaranteed by the

cooperation and participation of all States and by the widest possible

dissemination of information and unimpeded access for all sectors of the public

to a broad range of information and opinions on questions of arms limitation

and disarmament and the dangers relating to all aspects of the arms race and

war, in particular nuclear war."

The purpose of this essay is to deal with the work of only voluntary

organisations concerning peace education, and not with the work and

achievements, or non-achievements, of governmental bodies and their efforts

such as the SALT I and II (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks), or the work of the

so- called government ministers for disarmament. The reason behind discussing

the work of the UN on disarmament in some length, is that since 1978, when

the First Special Session was held, more and more non-governmental

organizations, have been having a chance to learn about the working of the UN

and make their own assessment. The experience of the Second Session was

extremely discouraging for the peace movements. One of my colleagues in the

movement commented that the Session should have been called armament

session rather than disarmament session. Speeches made by the heads of States

such as Mrs. Thatcher, Prime Minister of Great Britain, were in fact war

speeches, full of we and they. Speeches of the leaders of the peace

movements were drowned in the huge sea of jingoism and belligerence.

However, some non-governmental participants thought that the work they had

to do in preparation for the Session was useful. They felt that it was a good

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opportunity for them to convey their message to the establishment as well as

the public at large.

There is no doubt that it is a good strategy on the part of the peace

movements to make use of the UN in the best possible way, even though it may

not achieve much. It is also true that there are some people inside the

establishment who can push the idea further. If these people are pushed and

encouraged by NGOs to do their bit, there is no reason why they should be

written off completely.

The story of the UNESCO is more encouraging, particularly because there is

greater scope for non-governmental bodies to make an impact on its work. It

has also organised conferences and published good material on disarmament.

An important aspect of the work of the UNESCO is that it can reach those

quarters where peace movements in general cannot. In the past some issues of

the UNESCO journal Courier, which is published in various languages, have

been specially devoted to disarmament. They make useful reference material.

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6. pacifist and nonviolent movements

6.1. pacifist movements and the growth of anti-militarism

In the field of peace education one should recognise the historic role of those

organizations and movements which originally began to question the morality

as well as the legitimacy of war. They did not only begin the dialogue, they

also showed the way—not only by words but by deed as well. It is not to say

that they were the originators of the concept of peace as opposed to war.

Surely the need to have peace and its ethics has been with society for over two

and a half millenniums if not more. Nonetheless, it will not be erroneous to

state that the concept of a warless world is a product of modern history.

The First World War, at the time of which no one could have imagined the

power of the bombs that destroyed Hamburg and Dresden, (not to mention the

bomb that was dropped over Hiroshima) had given enough of an idea as to how

much suffering modern war can inflict on innocent human beings, and how

destructive it can be to life and civilization as a whole. It was that experience

which made hundreds or perhaps thousands of people, young and old, shout at

the top of their voices: No More ! Some of them had already argued and

campaigned against war even before the First World War was fought.

Tolstoy, for instance, had said at the Swedish Peace Congress in 1909: "The

truth in its full meaning lies in...four words— Thou shalt not kill—that truth is

so evident, so binding and so generally acknowledged, that it is only necessary

to put it clearly before men for the evil called war to become quite impossible.

"And so I think that if we who are assembled here at the Peace Congress

should, instead of clearly and definitely voicing the truth, address ourselves to

the governments with various proposals for lessening the evil of war or

gradually diminishing its frequency, we should be like men who, having in their

hand the key to a door, should try to break through walls they know to be too

strong for them. Before us are millions of armed men, ever more and more

efficiently armed and trained for more and more rapid slaughter. We know that

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these millions of people have no wish to kill their fellows and for the most part

do not know why they are forced to do that repulsive work, and that they are

weary of their position of subjection and compulsion. We know that the

murders committed from time to time by these men, are committed by order

of the governments; and we know that the existence of the governments

depends on the armies. Can we, then, who desire the abolition of war, find

nothing more conducive to our aim than to propose to the governments which

exist only by the aid of armies and consequently by war-measures which would

destroy war? Are we to propose to the governments that they should destroy

themselves?

"And for us who are assembled here to counteract the evil of war, if we really

desire to attain our end, only one thing is necessary: namely to put the

dilemma quite clearly and definitely both to those who form the governments

and to the masses of the people who compose the army. To do that we must

not only clearly and openly repeat the truth we all know and cannot help

knowing—that man should not slay his fellow man—but we must also make it

clear that no considerations can destroy the demand made by that truth on

people of the Christian world."

"Therefore, I propose to our meeting to draw up and publish an appeal to all

men—that war...is a vile and criminal business not only for those who

voluntarily choose a military career but for those who submit to it from avarice

or fear of punishment.

"...I propose in this appeal to express clearly the thought that for men of true

enlightenment, who are therefore free from the superstition of military glory

(and their number is growing every day) the military profession and calling,

notwithstanding all the efforts to hide its real meaning, is as shameful a

business as an executioner's and even more so. For the executioner only holds

himself in readiness to kill those who have been adjudged harmful and

criminal, while a soldier promises to kill all whom he is told to kill, even

though they be those dearest to him or the best of men."

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"Humanity...has reached a stage of such acute contradiction between its moral

demands and the existing social order, evoked by that inner contradiction

which is so clearly illustrated by our preparations for murder, becomes more

and more insistent every year and every day. The tension which demands that

alteration has reached such a degree that just as sometimes only a slight shock

is required to change a liquid into a solid body, so perhaps only a slight effort

or even a single word may be needed to change the cruel and irrational life of

our time—with its divisions, armaments, and armies— into a reasonable life in

keeping with the consciousness of contemporary humanity. Every such effort,

every such word, may be the shock which will instantly solidify the super-

cooled liquid. Why should not our gathering be that shock? In Anderson's fairy

tale, when the king went in triumphant procession through the streets of the

town and all the people were delighted with his beautiful new clothes, a word

from a child who said what everybody knew but had not said, changed

everything. He said: “He has nothing on!” and the spell was broken and the

king became ashamed and all those who had been assuring themselves that

they saw him wearing beautiful new clothes perceived that he was naked ! We

must say the same. We must say that by whatever name men may call murder -

murder always remains murder, a criminal and shameful thing. And it is only

necessary to say that clearly, definitely and loudly, as we can say it here, and

men will cease to see what they thought they saw and will see what is really

before their eyes. They will cease to see the service of their country, the

heroism of war, military glory and patriotism, and will see what exists: the

naked criminal business of murder! And if people see that the same thing will

happen as in the fairytale: those who do the criminal thing will feel ashamed,

and those who assure themselves that they do not see the criminality of

murder will perceive it and cease to be murderers".

"But how will nations defend themselves against their enemies, bow will they

maintain internal order and how can nations live without an army?

"What form the life of men will take if they repudiate murder, we do not and

cannot know; but one thing is certain: that it is more natural for men to be

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guided by the reason and, conscience with which they are endowed, than to

submit slavishly to people who arrange wholesale murders; and that therefore

the form of social order assumed by the lives of those who are guided in their

actions not by violence based on threats of murder but by reason and

conscience, will in any case be no worse than that under which they now

live."32

Those who said 'no more' after the First World War wanted to use just one word

to 'solidify' the super-cooled liquid. As far as their own action was concerned

they said ''No" to military conscription. They thought that their saying "No" to

war, war will be no more—their slogan was: war will cease when men will

refuse to fight. It did not happen that way; but it must be stated that in Britain

alone over sixteen thousand men refused military service. In France in the

summer of 1916 thirty four conscientious objectors were sentenced to death—a

sentence which was later commuted to 10 years penal servitude.33

Yes, it is true that in spite of their refusal to join the military and thereby

accepting suffering instead of "entering the ranks of murderers", the hundreds

of thousands of objectors over the past decades have not succeeded in ending

war. But as Harold Bing, who was Chairman of the War Resisters' International

for over fifteen years, wrote: "The Conscientious objector...is making a stand

not for himself alone but for a principle of universal significance and it is

important that governments and the public generally should recognise this. No

doubt non-conformists are always a nuisance to governments, but it is due to

the non-conformists of the past that we have the democratic institutions and

the liberties which we enjoy today...Conscientious objectors have constituted

a significant force for peace and freedom in a belligerent, increasingly

totalitarian world..."34

Harold Bing, who had himself gone through the punishment inflicted by the

State for being a war resister, continued "...though they have had some success

in achieving legislation for conscientious objectors they have not managed to

halt the trend towards more conscription and the spread of militarism. Nor

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have they yet moved far in the direction of those social changes which will

make a peaceful world a practical possibility..."

But conscientious objectors never claimed that they would end war. What they

did was to take a personal step in their own lives, and hoped that others would

do the same. The reason behind their "failure" could be attributed to two

factors. Governments' resources and their military might is extremely

overwhelming compared to the tiny resources—personal as well as financial—of

the anti-militarist forces. Secondly, at that stage of its development the

pacifist movement had not yet quite worked out its political philosophy and

strategy. And now, while on the one hand it has grown considerably more

mature, on the other the military has become grotesquely and

disproportionately larger. Although war objectors have been extraordinarily

courageous and imaginative their struggle has become much harder than

before.

Bart de Ligt, the Dutch anarchist pacifist thinker and activist, said in a lecture

at the first Summer School of the Peace Academy held in France in August 1938

when the war clouds were hovering over Europe, "...everybody is more or less

responsible for the present situation. Even the most courageous conscientious

objectors, who prefer long periods of imprisonments and if necessary, even

death, to participation in modern war, are in general paying direct and indirect

taxes of which a constantly increasing part is being used for war purposes. As a

matter of fact nobody amongst us can keep himself absolutely out of the grip

of totalitarian war. In this respect one can say with Dostoieffsky that "all of us

are guity of all."

'De Ligt continued: "When it comes to deciding who is responsible for modern

war it is usual to draw the attention in particular to the murderous Armament

International. Still what could this relatively small International do if the

Governments followed a policy of disarmament and peace and if the working

masses refused to work in munition factories? It would be easy and moreover

unjust to use this International as a scapegoat and to lay all the sins of war on

its shoulders. The Munition International would be nothing without the

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constant collaboration of the workers". De Ligt follows with: "In 1928 I was

present at an anti-war meeting in Vienna where I heard a revolutionary worker

shout to the anti-militarist priest Johannes Ude: 'Your Church has blessed the

arms!' Ude answered that the priests could never have done such things if the

workers themselves had not manufactured, transported and utilised the arras.

This reply, which was true from the standpoint of reality, was not quite right

from a moral standpoint. In the first place, the position of the workers in the

present world is such that they have no voice on the subject of production.

Threatened by unemployment and misery, they are forced to sell their working

capacity to employers who only are in a position to decide the sort of work to

be done. It is true that if the working masses had been really educated in a

humanitarian sense it would have been upto them to save themselves from the

slavery of death; they could have forced the employers to desist from any pro-

duction dangerous to humanity. But alas! They have never been educated in

this sense."

But what about the ordinary men and women in the society. Why do they not

oppose the manufacture and use of weapons and thus stop the curse of War.

Again, Bart de Ligt says: "The popular masses would not have given themselves

blindly to the services of destruction and death if their spiritual leaders, the

Catholic priests, the protestant parsons, the Socialist and syndicalist leaders

etc. had not encouraged them to do so, either in the name of God, of their

native country, or of socialism. Often the syndicalist leaders have even praised

their governments for giving big orders for engines of death: the Socialist

leaders have even gone so far as to approve of armaments production as a

means to diminish unemployment, and to encourage the workers to participate

in this production to the best of their abilities. From the moment that in a

bourgeois society the moral and intellectual leadership of the people is in the

hands of a relatively small group of intellectuals and semi-intellectuals, these

intellectuals and semi-intellectuals must in the first place be held responsible

for the lack of responsibility with which the working masses are ready to do

whatever the ruling classes may demand".36

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At the International Conference on Modern Methods of War and Protection of

Civil Population which took place in Frankfurt-on-Main, Germany, in January

1928, Bart de Ligt delivered a lecture which was published in a dozen

languages. He appealed to all intellectuals in the world to refuse to collaborate

in this treason against humanity. Already several scientists had 'refused to put

their knowledge and capacities into the service of the art of murder.' Among

them were people like Bertrand Russell of England, Helen Stocker of Germany,

Gertrud Woker of Switzerland and Ernest Cohen of Holland. It seems that the

publication of the lecture brought response from hundreds of men and women

of science nearly everywhere in the world. All declared themselves ready in

their domains to withdraw as much as possible from the slavery of war and to

assume all risks resulting from their attitude. De Ligt mentioned some specific

names such as the eminent educationists, Alolphe Ferriere and Paul Oestreich,

Sociologists, Charles Gide and Franz Oppenheimer; Literary figures, Han Ryner,

Paul Birukoff, Rosa Mayreder and Upton Sinclair; theologians, Van den Bergh,

Van Eysing, Heering and Ude : chemists, Naima Sahlbohm and Elvira Fradkind;

doctor Theodore Huzella ; architects, Berlage and Van Eesteren; lawyer Louis

Phillip ; Sinologist, Richard Wilhelm ; and the Russian Savant, Nicolas

Roubakine. People like Maria Montessori, Elizabeth - Rotten, Simone Weil,

Aldous Huxley, Gerald Heard, and Richard Gregg and some others of the same

stature declared that they were convinced that Science without conscience can

only ruin humanity, and that we must give back to modern science its real

conscience.36

The purpose of my going so much into this matter is to show that the pacifist

approach to the question of war and peace was developing from a simple

emotional one to a more sophisticated one—politically, socially and morally.

The politics of the twenties and thirties were making the thinking people very

apprehensive about their expected consequences. But it was not until the end

of the Second World War that pacifists in general and conscientious objectors

in particular started realizing that personal witness against war alone was not

enough; an organised and collective, politically sound strategy against war and

its causes should be their goal. The birth of the atomic bomb had radically

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altered the situation. The character of war and of international relations had

changed and not going to be the same any more.

The anti-war pacifist movement branched off into different sections. A large

part of the movement kept its activities limited to the traditional approach,

which was of personal witness and demand for complete and general

disarmament. It did not believe that demanding the ban on only nuclear

weapons was going to end war for ever. Within this section of the movement

also there were two types of activists. One, who continued to be convinced

that individual action is the soul of pacifism. The other type of activists started

organising in a collective manner, i.e. refusing military service in groups. They

believed that without collective action, their impact will be insignificant. Both

these groups had a large proportion of young men who believed in alternative

civilian service as opposed to military service. A small but increasing number of

men rejected the draft completely. They said that the State had no right to

conscript people for any kind of service.

Figures of conscientious objectors of both types during the sixties and seventies

clearly indicate the anti-militarist spirit of the period in Europe and North

America. For instance, in West Germany the number of men who applied for

conscientious objector status in 1967 was four times that of the number in

1966. By 1971 the number had already reached well over 27,000 from 2,750 in

1966. In Denmark while only 1% of all the men drafted in the forces in the early

sixties became COs, in 1971 the proportion rose to 15%, and in late seventies to

18%. The anti-military attitude among the young educated has continued its

upward trend ever since. Its obvious effect on the public at large could only

be, and has been, of questioning the politics, economics and morality of

militarism. The major international organisations working in this field are: The

International Fellowship of Reconciliation, and the War Resisters' International.

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6.2. anti-nuclear movement

The branch of the movement which saw the atom bomb as the major threat to

human life and civilization, went ahead and organised campaigns against

nuclear armaments. For instance, the CND (Campaign for Nuclear

Disarmament) in Britain, the Campaign in West Germany and a powerful anti-

nuclear bomb movement in Japan, all were founded by members of the pacifist

movements mainly. Their demand was total ban on nuclear weapons, including

their testing underwater, underground or in atmosphere. It would not be an

exaggeration to say that more than twenty million people of all ages must have

taken part in anti-nuclear weapons demonstrations throughout the world. Even

some of these earlier demonstrations had over a hundred thousand people

taking part. The first demonstration in which I took part in the UK had seventy

five thousand people. It was one of the famous Aldermaston marches.

Yet, in size and numbers nuclear bombs have been increasing every day. The

anti-nuclear movement did not succeed in banning the bomb even though its

impact on public opinion had been profound. It is not only the public

demonstrations which made this impact; public education was part of the

campaign and the information collected and disseminated among the masses

was convincing. Films like The War Game were produced and publicly shown.

Posters, books, pamphlets and handbills were used to educate the population

about the destructivity and the immorality of nuclear weapons.

On the other hand, the USA, the USSR, the British and the French continued

their intensive work of producing more and more lethal weapons. Today the

nuclear arsenal stock-piled by the nuclear weapon powers is composed of war-

heads that can be used from land, sea or air; from underground or underwater

launching stations; long range, medium range and short range missiles etc.

Their number is becoming so large that even if only some of them are used

they will destroy the world's population thirty or more times over. A stage is

reached when leaders of the two super powers are talking in terms of fighting

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nuclear war in and from space. What we have known until now only as science

fiction, could soon become a reality.

This is a new challenge to peace educators and activists. The challenge will

become more and more serious and tougher, especially as any kind of

opposition to government policies is considered anti-national and equal to

treason. Some scientific minded people predict that to silence or nullify dissent

in public, rulers might use any or all available methods on large scale to

destroy the faculty of initiative in people. Until that stage becomes a reality,

the peace movement thinks that there is still time to stop the menace of war

and the authoritarian ways of public management.

In recent years the movement has taken to nonviolent direct action much more

seriously and on a larger scale than it did in the sixties. It now realises that

neither sporadic action nor violent demonstrations to show public indignation

against the bomb will serve the purpose. I took part in a demonstration in

London, in October 1983, in which there were four hundred thousand people

chanting slogans against the bomb, singing peace songs with thousands of

banners saying the classical "No". That mass of people, young and old, many

with their babies in perambulators were against the stationing of the U'S.

Pershing missiles in UK. The U.S. has imposed these missiles in hundreds on the

NATO countries in Europe, as deterrents against the Soviet SS-NX-20s, placed in

the countries of the Warsaw pact. The public of the NATO countries does not

want these weapons, but their rulers have accepted them.

The movement against the placement of Pershings has grown substantial in

size. In all the concerned countries of Europe every now and then millions of

people demonstrate their opposition to nuclear weapons. The British

movement, especially the CND, has now decided to resort to civil disobedience

as part of their campaign against the U.S. missiles. In June 1983, some brave

women set up a protest camp in front of the Greenham Common cruise missile

base. This camp has inspired many people to set up similar bases in other NATO

countries, and has given a tremendous boost to the morale of the movement

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and also a depth of commitment so much needed if civil disobedience has to be

resorted to.

Greenham Common Women's Peace Camp has continued to maintain an

unbroken presence outside the airbase, despite two bad winters and continued

harassment by the authorities. ''The ideas and vitality exemplified by the peace

camp are in dramatic contrast to the bleakness and dreadful purpose of the

base—two opposing value systems right next to one another but on opposite

sides of the fence. The peace camp is a remarkable manifestation of women's

determination and vision, an inspiration to many thousands of people in this

country and abroad. As well as being a round-the-clock protest against Cruise

missiles, it is also a resource - a women's space in which to try to live out ideals

of feminism and nonviolence, a focus of information and ideas, a meeting

place, and a vital context for women to express their beliefs and feeling."37

These sisters felt desperate about the prospects of Cruise missiles being sited

in Britain. They are convinced, like the whole of the peace movement, that

this would make their country more of a target than ever. They are angry that

resources are being squandered on weapons of mass destruction.

The following quotation from the same book mentioned above shows how the

Greenham Common Women's Camp was formed and attracted other concerned

women. Sarah Van Veen wrote in March 1982: "I used to wake in the night in a

complete panic, having dreamt the nuclear nightmare, the post-holocaust

dream. I was tired of this fear being thrust upon me. I felt I had to do

something and not just build a bunker in my back garden! I'd heard of near

catastrophe through computer error, through mismanagement, through

negligence and was appalled at the planning and contemplation for mass

murder that was going on all around me.

"When I heard about the women's peace camp initially, I must have pushed the

idea into the back of my mind, because I felt that the sacrifices that needed to

be taken in order to make such a direct action were too great for someone like

me with two children and seemingly secure, cosy world.

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"But one day, I had a letter from a woman in the peace camp telling of the

threat of eviction that the women here faced, what was needed was a strong

physical presence of women and it was something I could do. So I packed my

sleeping bag up and drove the 200 miles or whatever it is upto Greenham

Common not knowing what on earth to expect. I'd never been to a peace camp

before. I didn’t really know what was going on here. But the warmth and the

love that I was greeted with, the total absence of suspicion, was a fantastic

feeling and I really felt that I made the right decision.

"The Camp itself is a permanent reminder to the government that there are

many people who don't want to be part of the nuclear arms race. We're not

just a bunch of women sitting around a base. We are speaking for thousands of

people who don't want cruise missiles sited here. It seemed a strange kind of

democracy to me that a decision could be taken without even parliament being

consulted, let alone the public. I sensed this sick mentality all around me that

was motivated not by the sacredness of life but by fear that was feeding the

arms race. It seemed crazy to me that the government were pouring our

precious energies, our resource, billions of pounds into something that was for

mass murder, instead of this money going towards our social services, our

health education.

"But it's not just a question of costs and alternative military strategy. It's a

moral question. There's really only one thing you need to ask yourself, and that

is: 'Would you pull the trigger? Would you press the button?' And if the answer

is 'No', then you have to work with us and help this struggle for peace."38

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6.3 nonviolent movement in India

The two basic components of peace action of the twentieth century are,

western pacifism with foundations in Christianity, and the philosophy of

nonviolence ahimsa with its origin in Indian culture. Pacifism today is no longer

exclusively Christian. With the growing awareness of the human race being one

family, the commandment: thou shall not kill applies to everyone. Similarly

nonviolence has now taken roots in most societies.

Nonviolence, though, is the literal translation of ahimsa, and although both the

terms sound negative, they are different from each other. Ahimsa is not a

negative concept, it is a way of life, as Buddha said: ahimsa is the highest

religion. In other words it is wholistic, meaning thereby that it has both: the

negative as well as the positive. It is my belief that Gandhi's ahimsa, which he

also called satyagraha—insistence on truth—has its origin in this dialectics. It is

a process of saying yes to something and no to something else. In the

nonviolent movement of India, which was led by Mahatma Gandhi, the two

"opposites" were expressed by the constructive programme on the one hand

and on the other by resistance against evil. The constructive programme

endeavoured to foster all the values of goodness, cooperation, sharing, etc.

and the nonviolent resistance aspect of the movement rejected and opposed

the values that were divisive and which enslaved the individual and the

community. It was probably this quality that made the nonviolent freedom

struggle of India reject the British rule but not the British.

Ahimsa and pacifism, though, are not identical, have become complementary

to each other. In recent decades it is being realised that pacifist thought and

action have no meaning without nonviolence becoming their soul; and

nonviolent movements had no relevance unless they rejected war as an

instrument of resolving conflict unequivocally.

Active cooperation had already started even before the twenties between the

European, North American pacifist movements and the nonviolent freedom

struggle of India. Gandhi's work in South Africa had actually laid the founda-

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tions of this cooperation. While the Indian struggle for freedom needed moral

support from the pacifist movements of the West, the anti-militarist no-war

movements sought Gandhi's advice. This mutuality helped in spreading the

concept of peace by nonviolent means in many lands.

It was the first political mass movement run on nonviolent basis, and because

of its many small and medium size successes as it went along, and the

imaginative methods it used, it became a kind of model for some of the

countries that were also fighting for independence from colonial rule. From the

early twenties until the late forties, whatever happened in India in this

connection, was closely watched and studied in different parts of the world.

The methods used and the unique type of attitude maintained by the oppressed

towards the oppressor, i.e. without bitterness, and because the struggle

showed the signs of success almost at every stage of its growth, convinced

many people all over the world that political conflicts of such great magnitude

can be resolved without using weapons or any kind of physical force.

Although the Indian story was by no means the first one in the history of

successful use of nonviolence in conflicts, it has been used more than any other

example, as a model by many social change groups such as the civil rights

movement of Martin Luther King and the farm workers unions of Cesar Chavez

in USA. This is not the occasion to elaborate the way the Gandhian experience

influenced people of other countries. The important point to note is that the

education it provided in nonviolence was on a vast scale.

In India, training and mass education was part of the techniques used in the

struggle. The Constructive Programme served two purposes. It tried to build

alternative institutions for the reconstruction of the life of the country -

socially, economically and politically. At the same time it was a scheme for

training a large number of contingents of volunteers for the various campaigns

of civil disobedience against the British rule.

From the very beginning of his work even in South Africa, Gandhi published

journals, which eventually became powerful organs of the struggle and the

propagation of the doctrine of nonviolence. Young India and Harijan were read

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widely and used as a medium for public debate. As far as writings on the

philosophy of nonviolence and its methods were concerned considerable

amount of literature was produced by Gandhi himself and many other writers,

two of who should be specially mentioned: Richard Gregg whose book The

Power of Nonviolence, and Joan Bondurant who wrote Conquest of Violence.

These two books along with Gandhi's Autobiography, and Hind Swaraj or Indian

Home rule should be enough for anyone who wishes to learn about nonviolence

as used in the Indian struggle for independence, and the programme worked

out for the reconstruction of Indian politics.

After independence and Gandhi's death a major organisation emerged to

continue the work. It was founded by Gandhi's followers, especially those who

were engaged in the constructive programme, and who did not believe in

seeking power positions and party politics. The Land Gift movement of Vinoba

Bhave, was organised by this body—the Sarva Seva Sangh. The Land Gift

movement developed into Gramdan, and, in addition to the work for land

revolution, its educational effect on the public was profound. For a period it

seemed that the most urgent problem after independence, landlordism, will

also be solved by nonviolent means. The movement created a large cadre of

field workers, and nearly three million acres of land was redistributed among

the landless. Although the movement did not succeed in solving the land

problem, it did create a climate of confidence among the movement circles.

Moreover it became aware of the gaps and errors of approach towards the

problems of the country.

Soon after Gandhi's death the country had raised a large fund to set up a trust

in his memory. The Gandhi Memorial Trust, which handled the fund, allotted a

part of it to create the Gandhi Peace Foundation, which has now been working

for the last twenty-five years. It has done valuable work in the field of training,

publications and more importantly, in bringing people from various disciplines

together to think about the contemporary problems of the country. The

Foundation has sent teams to various regions for studying conflict situations

and local problems. In the early sixties it organised a world anti-nuclear

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convention. Among its publication activities is the production of a couple of

monthly journals— Gandhi Marg, in Hindi and the other in English.

An important development of the Indian nonviolent movement was the Shanti

Sena, an army of nonviolent volunteers who were always prepared to go into

conflict situations to make peace. It is this idea which encouraged the

formation of the World Peace Brigade in 1961, which has now reemerged as the

Peace Brigades International. The Shanti Sena has done significant work of

peace-making at times of communal violence several times at various places.

The Shanti Sena, for nearly twenty years worked in close cooperation with the

Serva Seva Sangh. As indicated the work of training in India was always geared

to specific campaigns and on a sort of ad hoc basis, which made it alive and

relevant for particular situations. However, a new nonviolent training centre

has come into being since the beginning of 1984. It is called Sampoorna Kranti

Vidyalaya—Institute of Total Revolution.

Apart from these large organisations there are numerous local groups doing

grass root work. These groups belong to a wide range of philosophical

backgrounds. Those among them who believe in working for nonviolent social

change are presently trying to establish an informal network. Some of these

groups have the experience of the mid-seventies when Jaiprakash Narayan was

leading the movement against corruption and exploitation. They draw

inspiration from JP's ideas of lokniti—people's politics, which is also called

party-less democracy. Its basis is grassroot work with the view of organising the

constructive elements in society and harnessing people's strength to fight

corruption in and the disintegration of society.

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7. peace and the environment

Gandhi's economic theory and his industrial ideas have been well defined and

explained in various of his writings. In some ways they have been better

formulated and explained by his colleague J.C. Kumarappa, who headed the All

India Village Industries Association set up in the mid-thirties. Kumarappa,

expounding Gandhi's ideas, wrote: "Work in nature consists in the effort put

forth by the various factors—insentient and sentient—which cooperate to

complete this cycle of life. If this cycle is broken, at any stage, at any time,

consciously or unconsciously, violence results as a consequence of such a

break. When violence intervenes in this way, growth or progress is stopped,

ending finally in destruction and waste. Nature is unforgiving and ruthless.

Therefore, self-interest and self-preservation demand complete nonviolence,

cooperation and submission to the ways of nature if we are to maintain

permanency by non-interference with and by not short-circuiting the cycle of

life."39

Kumarappa worte the above in 1945. As though he was prophesising, for what

we have now is violence and exploitation in the name of industrialisation and

destruction of the earth's environment in the name of technology. Look at the

way nature works: "Even sentient creatures have to fall in line and function

properly in their own sphere if they are to exist. An earthworm by its

movements in the earth, loosens the soil allowing it to absorb air and water.

When it...thoroughly mixes the various constituent parts in its stomach and

throws out a well prepared and fertilised soil—worm casts—from which plants

can draw their own nutriment easily. Here is a sample of the form of vital

cooperation existing between soil, plant and animal life similar to the one

where bees and butterflies fertilize the flowers of plants."40

But when chemical fertilizers are used in place of organic manures for a time

they may give better crops, but continuous application of chemical fertilizers

destroys the earthworm because it cannot feed on chemicals. With the

disappearance of earthworms the soil becomes heavy and ultimately loses its

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fertility. Nature's cycle being broken by discarding farmyard manure and

vegetable composts; the Economy of Permanence yields place to the man-

made Economy of Transience. When Gandhi and Kumarappa pleaded for

maintaining the balance in nature, scientists and political leaders in their

arrogance called them primitive and anti-development.

Talking about the human faculty called free will, Kumarappa said: "By

exercising this gift in the proper way, he (man) can consciously bring about a

much greater cooperation and coordination of nature's units than any other

living being. Conversely, by using it wrongly he can create quite a disturbance

in the economy of nature and in the end destroy himself."41

What is the situation today? And what are the forecasts in regard to the results

of modern technology and industrialization? Take for instance, the use of

energy both at home and in industry. There is a hunger for more and more

electricity and gas to do cooking, lighting the house and running of fans,

coolers, air conditioners, fridges and freezers. Industry is always complaining

everywhere in the world that they do not have sufficient and cheap enough

energy to run their factories profitably and efficiently. The energy generating

industry must produce more power, and in order to do so it has to use more

coal, oil or gas. The result of doing that is what one sees in most of the large

and medium size industrial cities all over the world. I remember Delhi of my

childhood days. Today it is a different city with a different sort of air and

water.

Most part of the year the sky is covered with smoke and dust, eyes smart and

throat chokes presumably resulting in permanent damage to health.

It is estimated that in the past 125 years the burning of fossil fuels all over the

world has released 140 billion tonnes of carbon into the atmosphere. About

half of it has stayed there. The current consumption of fossil fuels releases 4.5

billion tonnes of carbon into the atmosphere, half of which again stays there.

The effect of this alone is that although carbon dioxide does not prevent

sunlight reaching the earth, it does reduce the earth's reradiation of heat back

into space, thus making the earth warmer and warmer all the time. There are

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further implications: a warmer climate leads to more clouds, thus reducing the

amount of heat of the Sun reaching the earth. Moreover, burning of fossil fuels

also introduces a vast amount of tiny particles in the atmosphere, which can

and does affect solar heating.

Although several international conferences have been held on the issue of

carbon and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere the most important one being

that of 1979, which concluded that this problem deserved the most urgent

attention by the world community of nations, nothing as yet has happened in

terms of change of policies of governments.

There are many other factors which pollute the atmosphere and make it

gradually more lethal. For instance, heavy metal pollution can lead to damage

of the reproductive process of brain and nervous system, lung and kidney

diseases and causing cancer and abnormalities in foetuses. There are ever

increasing number of cases of serious contamination of lakes and rivers,

causing poisoning leading to death by eating mercury contaminated fish. Power

stations emit sulphur and nitrogen oxides which in the atmosphere can be

converted into sulphuric and nitric acids, and fall as 'acid rain'. Acid rain is

highly corrosive and leads to acidity in rivers and lakes. Most life dies in highly

acid water. In Sweden 20,000 out of nearly 100,000 lakes are ecologically

virtually dead or dying because of acid water. In Southern Norway all the lakes

in a 13,000 square kilometre area are devoid of fish. A U.S. National Academy

of Sciences Committee has reported that even at the present level of

emissions, the number of affected lakes in Europe and the U.S.A. can be

expected to be more than double by 1990.

A recent report of India's Environment, suggested that a staggering 70% of the

available water in India is polluted, according to scientists at the National

Environment Engineering and Research Institute (NEERI). "From the Dal Lake in

the North to the Periyar and Chaliyar rivers in the South, from the Damodar

and Hooghly in the East to the Thane Creek in the West, the picture of water

polluting is uniformly gloomy. Even our large perennial rivers like the Gariga

are today heavily polluted." This has been admitted by even the Planning

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Commission. Implications of such pollution are very serious. According to one

estimate, two-thirds of all illnesses in India are related to water-borne

diseases, many of which often take the form of epidemics. The production of

this report has been a great service to the cause of public education.42

Despite the fact that India is nowhere near the USA, Sweden or Britain in

industrialization, it has already a very rapidly deteriorating environment.

Moreover, the industry or even the Government has not become aware of the

disastrous effects of environmental pollution. Nor it seems, are they inclined to

check the rate of pollution leave alone totally radicalize their policies and

production system to solve the problems of pollution on a permanent basis. The

mood of the Government as far as experience goes, is just the contrary.

Environmentalists can at any time be called agents of anti- growth and anti-

nationalist. What would be the state of India's environment by the year 2,000

AD can be a subject for writing a science fiction.

Before taking up the most crucial issue of deforestation it might help going a

bit more into the question of atmosphere, that of the Ozone layer in the

stratosphere. The function of the Ozone layer is to absorb the Ultraviolet

radiation coming from the Sun, and prevent it from reaching the earth's

surface. Ultraviolet radiation speeds up the aging of skin and increases rates of

skin cancer and eye diseases, reduces the rate of plant growth and slows

growth in many forms of marine life. In the mid-seventies it became known

that chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used as propellants in aerosol

sprays and as the working fluid in refrigeration, might in time damage the

ozone layer. CFCs released in the atmosphere eventually reach the

stratosphere. There, intense sunlight may release chlorine gas from the CFCs,

which could destroy ozone. Some studies suggest that 1 % reduction in ozone

could increase ultraviolet radiation by 1.6-3.0%. If just two of the many CFCs

now in use continue to be used at the current rate, the Ozone layer might be

reduced by 5-10%. We cannot imagine what effect it would make on the life of

people on the earth. Similarly the way artificial fertilizers are being used in

agriculture in great quantities is most ominous. As such the use of nitrate

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fertilisers will lead to higher levels of nitrous oxides in the atmosphere, which

might further damage the ozone layer, effecting human health.

Consciousness about the ecological balance being destroyed by modern military

industrial complex has raised innumerable questions about the way society is

being managed. The most alarming item in this list is that of forests being

misused and fast disappearing. Many Indian observers place the current rate of

deforestation at well over one million hectares every year. Between 1951 and

1972 India lost 3.4 million hectares of forest lands to dams, new crop lands,

roads and industries alone. A 1981 FAO report on Forest Resources of Tropical

Asia warned that the region is faced with serious decrease in its forest stock.

The stage has reached the point, the report indicates, where there is no

evidence that great variety of forest services and functions such as harbouring

of wild life, stabilisation of soil and of water and climatic regimes, can be re-

established in the foreseeable future.

The consequences of this excessive deforestation are increasing floods, soil

erosion, heavy siltation of dams built at an enormous expense and changes in

micro-climate—a progressive depletion of the country's ecological bank, driving

it incessantly towards bankruptcy. Flood damages alone now average Rs.

10,000 million every year. Worst than this is the deprival to the people of

forest products, firewood, timber, which are vital for human survival.43

After the 1979 Stockholm Conference deforestation has become one of the

major environmental issues of the decade. The Earthscan Press Briefing

Document No. 31 from which I have used some information for this section on

ecology, states that deforestation was "a highly political issue" at the

Conference, and, therefore, the Conference recommendations were insipid.

However, the Briefing gives valuable amount of information on the subject,

and points out the dangers that lie in front. Peter H. Raven, Director of the

Missouri Botanical Garden, USA, says: "Billions of dollars have been spent on

the exploration of the Moon. We now know more about the moon than we do

about the rainforests of say, Western Columbia. The Moon will be there for

longer than these forests."

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8. peace and nuclear energy

The next item that I want to mention here is perhaps the most important one

and one that links up the problems of ecology and war in a way that is most

horrific. People who have become conscious about the reasons behind the

callousness of the establishment in regard to the ecological balance and its

relation to the mental and physical health of human kind, are realising that the

immediate profit motive of the powerful section of the community is behind it.

The item is nuclear power.

For a long time the public was deluded and mesmerised by the governments

being enthusiastic over the 'boon' that has been given to us in the form of

atom-power. Those who used it for mass murdering wanted to wash their sins

by turning atom for-war to atom-for-peace. (Eisenhower's phrase) and those

who were deluded were some of the good people who saw the splitting of the

atom as the dawn of human happiness. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, the first

Prime Minister of India, said on October 4, 1952: "We are interested in atomic

energy for social purpose. Atomic energy represents a tremendous power. If

the power can be utilised as we use hydroelectric power it would be a

tremendous boon to mankind because it is likely to be more available and

cheaper than the building of huge hydro-electric works. Therefore, we are

interested in the development of atomic energy from the social point of

view."44 I wish Pandit Nehru were alive today to decide for himself whether it

was a boon or the greatest curse to human society. Sadly enough at one time

even Vinobaji had thought on those lines.

Scientists who cared more for their discoveries and who were geared to either

some political idealism, vested interest, or nationalist ego, and for whom

dedication to their scientific motives overruled the consideration for human

life and values, did not help in seeing the whole truth. For them the atom was

the provider of energy which can be used to advance technology even further.

Of course it will be used, they said, to take away drudgery from work and

liberate man from hard manual labour. And, undoubtedly a large segment of

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these must have also had at the back of their minds the option of using nuclear

power for weaponry. Homi Bhabha, a founder of the nuclear programme of

India, was one of them.45 Later some of these people, scientists, as well as

politicians, called it 'deterrent'. Recently, the official communique of the

Economic Summit of the Western Alliance entitled 'The London Charter for

Democracy" stated ... "We believe in the need for peace with freedom and

justice. Each of us rejects the use of force as a means of settling disputes.

Each of us will maintain only the military strength necessary to deter any

aggression..." This statement is the peak of hypocrisy coming from these big

powers, who are themselves responsible for the present arms race and the

global crisis.

It is now generally accepted that neither real peace can be maintained or built

on the basis of the theory of deterrence nor can the civilian-social use of

nuclear power be seen separate from its military use. The concern on this issue

has become extremely widespread and in Europe and North America, it has

taken the form of open public discussion and mass movement against, not only

nuclear weapons but also against nuclear energy. Dangers of radiation after a

nuclear attack as discussed in the British Medical Association's report—The

Medical Effects of Nuclear War—are not limited only to a war situation. The

increasing number of nuclear power plants are worrying the populations of

countries where they are situated. Even a country like India is planning to build

twenty-two more nuclear plants in the next 15 years or so.46

There are two serious problems connected with nuclear plants (apart from

their economy): a) radio-activity effecting their workers and the population on

account of the common recurrence of accidents such as leakages, sabotage

etc. and b) disposal of nuclear waste. Although opposition to nuclear power

plants had already started in the sixties, in the seventies it became a serious

concern of scientists as well as lay people. The famous accident of the Three

Mile Island power plant in Philadelphia, USA, horrified everyone, including

those who had only a vague idea of what nuclear radiation can be. The incident

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was caused by a valve failure. Similar valve failures had taken _ place earlier in

two of France's Pressurised Water Reactors.47

RADIO-ACTIVITY

It had been ironic how the Three Mile Island accident took place only a few

weeks after a fictional film was made of the possibility of such an accident

occurring there. What it indicated was that the people had been having a

constant fear of radiation well before the actual accident happened and also

that the government and the industry had been deceiving them about the

dangers. Apparently many accidents that had already happened in many of the

nuclear plants in various countries, were kept secret from public. Somehow

though, through the work of concerned people they have been brought to the

notice of the press and the public eventually.

Theft of nuclear fuel is not uncommon. Just for example, at the end of 1974, it

was reported: "Delhi, October 7, Parliamentary enquiries by India's Central

Bureau of Investigation indicated that substantial quantity of Uranium, valued

at more than £ 1 m. have been smuggled out of the country to China and

Pakistan through Nepal. The CBI believed that illegal trade is being organised

by Indians in league with an international gang."48 Such acts of smuggling or

theft cannot be totally safe for either those who commit them or who happen

to be near them, leave aside their political implications.

People have become apprehensive about the public assurances given by

governments on the safety of nuclear plants. Here is an example of the U.S.

government's efforts to mislead its public, and of the reaction to it from

independent bodies including scientists. The study came to be known as the

Rasmussen report.49 It was carried out under the Atomic Energy Commission

(AEC), U.S. and called the Reactor Safety Study. The Nuclear Regulatory

Commission Chairman told the Congress that it represented a "full, objective

and scientific analysis of the risks." The Study is now a 'white paper' used by

the Federal Government and the industry to support their position that nuclear

plants are safe enough to operate.60

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Nevertheless the findings of the Study came under severe attack from many

independent scientists. The Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) in an

assessment of the study found it had not considered fully and objectively a

great number of factors relating risks. The report had been written by a

nuclear engineer who was a Director of a nuclear industry lobbying group, and

a nuclear industry consultant, who was misrepresented as being independent of

the industry. The industry itself had carried out important parts of the safety

analysis in the study.

The Government suppressed the report of yet another special task force of

government nuclear safety experts which concluded that "it is difficult to

assign a high degree of confidence" to the type of risks estimates being made

by the RSS to other flaws and misrepresentations in the Report. The UCS

recommended that the number and magnitude of the deficiencies of the

Report were so high that it should be withdrawn. That plans for further

expansion of the nuclear programme should be thoroughly reassessed in the

light of the failure of the RSS to develop credible estimates for accident risks

or the possibility of an accident of unacceptable size could occur in coming

decades. That the operation of currently licensed nuclear plants should be

promptly reviewed and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission should begin

systematic review of its overall regulatory programme in the light of the RSS

findings.51

In the public debate that took place in Britain on the Rasmussen report one

could notice the people's concern for the integrity of the alliance between the

government and the industry. The debate suggested that the U.S. controversy

needs to be taken up vigorously in Britain and Europe, as the only competent

critics in many of the issues affecting technological choice are independent

scientists.52

During the last few years many news stories have come out from UK, West

Germany, Netherlands, USA, and France about cracks, leaks, and other

technological failures in nuclear plants; damage due to heavy storms, and

earthquakes, corrosion in nuclear waste containers lying under deep waters

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and critical human errors which could have caused serious disasters. According

to estimates by the Nuclear Installation Inspectorate, Britain's Official

Watchdog on reactor safety, more than 30,000 people could be killed by an

accident in a pressurised water reactor; about 1,500 at the time of accident,

but most of the 30,000 would be cancer deaths occurring many years after the

event, though they may not be readily detectable in any population exposed to

radiation from accidents. The report has been published only after a long delay

and pressure from environmentalists.53

There is a universal practice of secrecy that governments in general have.

Public discussion on defence is a taboo and discussion on the nuclear issue is

considered blasphemy. I do not want to go into the reasons behind it but I do

propose to show how governments are losing credibility by resorting to

straightforward falsehood. A couple or so examples would suffice to illustrate

this phenomenon.

The Central Electricity Generating Board (CEGB) has a plan to build another

nuclear plant at Sizewell, where there is already one—Sizewell A. There was a

public uproar against it. An inquiry called the Sizewell Inquiry has been set up

which, if I recall correctly, is going on for the last two years or so.

Overwhelming evidence submitted by the various popular movements indicate

the thoroughness of their arguments against the new power plant. They say

that radiation from the plant is killing people of cancer. There were five

leukaemia deaths involving CEGB power station staff in England and Wales. Out

of these five, three were at Sizewell A. At one of the sittings of the inquiry, Dr

John Bonnell, the CEGB Chief Medical Adviser said that he was at a loss to

explain why these deaths had occurred at Sizewell A. But he added: "We are

convinced they are not due to radiation." After giving evidence at the Snape

Maltings. Suffock, Bonnell, commenting on another such death, said, "This

case, tragic as it is, is not due to radiation at Sizewell. It may be something in

the air, something they have eaten. It may be a chance. We just don't know."

He added that if radio activity was to blame for the incidence Of leukaemia

among Sizewell staff, on the basis of recorded radiation doses, the board,

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which wants to build Britain's first pressurised water nuclear reactor at

Sizewell, would have expected 18 times more leukaemia deaths from its power

stations than in fact had been recorded. He also told the inquiry that people

living near nuclear power plants receive less radiation exposure from them

than in their own homes from consumer products like colour television,

luminous watches and smoke detectors. The CEGB's basic argument, it seems,

is that the population was exposed to low levels of radiation from a mixture of

sources. These include cosmic rays from outer space, external radiation from

ancient rocks, especially granite and from diet.54 How can such statements be

made, despite the known fact that operator radiation exposure level of PWR's

is higher than that of the advanced gas cooled type reactors. It is hard to

understand how can the Board or for that matter the Government, think they

can deceive the people today when some of the most competent scientists in

this field are active in the anti-nuclear movement.

The story about the Windscale accident is even more disturbing. According to

Paul Rowntree's letter to The Guardian Editor, the Windscale No. 1 reactor

caught fire on October 10, 1957- "An article by John Urquhart of New Castle

University, published in New Scientist, March 31, 1983, claimed that 1,000

deaths must have occurred as a result of the release. These were in addition to

260 deaths from Thyroid cancer which the National Radiological Protection

Board thinks may have occurred as a result of the accident." The letter to the

Editor continues, "According to your report, the NRPB is embarrassed about not

knowing that the reactor contained polonium, and, in mitigation, points out

that it had taken the official enquiry reports at face value.

"Certainly, given the nuclear industry's record of distortions, fantasies and

untruths, this was extraordinarily naive. The official report on the accident by

Sir Alexander Flick55 offers no explanation for the presence of Lithium

magnesium catridges in the reactor and suppresses all mention of polonium."

The letter also gives an indication of the relationship between nuclear power

for so-called social purposes and nuclear power for weaponry. "The reactor in

which the fire occurred was planned from the beginning to produce not only

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weapon- grade plutonium but also polonium and tritium for use in the

manufacture of nuclear weapons. Polonium produced by the irradiation of

bismuth; and tritium is produced by the irradiation of lithium. Lithium bums on

contact with air, and when a lithium cartridge ruptured it set the pile alight."

"Despite the Wand assurance from British Nuclear Fuels Ltd. that staff exposed

to polonium would not suffer any harm, the development of late radiation

effects, such as bone-marrow cancer, is to be anticipated in staff operationally

exposed to this exceptionally dangerous radio-element.

"The truth about the Windscale fire has been systematically suppressed in order

to protect the nuclear weapons and nuclear power programme from the

backlash of public opinion..."

As a result of the Windscale fire a cloud of radioactivity spread across England,

and eventually reached Holland. At the time the authorities denied that there

was any danger to local inhabitants. However, mounting pressure from the

Political Ecology Research Group eventually led to a report which suggested

that 260 people may have contracted cancer, 20 of them fatally. The National

Radiological Protection Board, due to .public pressure, produced a second

report, published in the last week of January last year, which suggested that

the Windscale death total may have reached 33—an estimate still rejected by

Mr. Urqhart, who believes upto 1,000 people may have died, because of the

Windscale blaze.56

Public education on the question of peace, particularly in the USA and Western

Europe has been happening in all sorts of ways—mostly, of course, through the

efforts of independent scientists, journalists, and public leaders. About a year

ago, in early 1983, in U.K. a group of radiation experts had called for an

independent investigation of the medical records of 8,000 servicemen who may

have been exposed to high dozes of radiation during nuclear testing in the

1950s. The BBC had conducted a nationwide investigation into this problem.

According to this programme the incidence of radiation related illnesses,

including cancer, leukaemia and cataracts, appears to be much higher than

official Government figures show. The Government has consistently denied that

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the servicemen were at risk. The BBC team collected more than 500 cases of

diseases among servicemen who witnessed tests of Christmas Island in the

Pacific Ocean, and a study of 330 of them has shown consistently high levels of

cataracts and leukaemia. While the Government figures state that of the 8,000

only 17 have cancer of the blood, the BBC research team shows 37 having been

affected.57

It is now known that nuclear tests, whether in atmosphere, underwater or

underground, are undoubtedly most dangerous. What is the story of the Indian

Pokharan blast, nobody knows. Nothing has been published or even leaked out

as far as public information is concerned. But numerous stories have come out

from other parts of the world, particularly those parts of the world where the

public and independent experts have become aware of the dangerous effects

of the nuclear arms race. The Observer, London, published on April 3,1983, a

story of Yami Laster, a blind man, a member of an aboriginal group from

central Australia. It was October 15, 1953'. Laster said: "I looked up South and

saw this black smoke rolling through the mulga. It just came at us through the

trees like a black mist. The old people started shouting: Its a mamu (an evil

spirit)...they dug holes in the sand-dune and said: Get in here, you kids. We

got in and it rolled over and around us and went away."

"Everyone was vomiting and had diarrhoea and people were laid out

everywhere. Next day, people had very sore eyes, red with tears, and I could

not open my eyes. I lost my sight in my right eye and could see only a bit with

my left eye. I lost my left eye-sight in 1957. Five days after the black cloud

came, the old people started dying."

The story of the effects of these tests—Totem I and Totem II— at Emu Field in

1953, started coming to light when patterns of cancer and leukaemia began

emerging among British ex- servicemen. The site was abandoned after two

tests. Aboriginal families were doused with radiation. Remaining aboriginals

were rounded up into camp hundreds of miles away for the next series of tests

further South at Marlinga, where they suffered great misery and social

disintegration.

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Between 1957 and 1962, they wandered about the unfenced range, unable to

read warning signs. On at least four occasions, families were found there,

three times camped in craters themselves. Hitherto secret Aldermaston

documents show the ground was highly radioactive for years afterwards.

The Observer report states: "White Australia was awe struck by the top secret

military atmosphere of the tests. Australians were lectured by their Anglophile

Prime Minister, Robert Menzies, that they must welcome the British

programme. Over and over again they were assured it was totally safe, even to

the point of suppressing awkward scientific information." Loads of information

on the callousness of the military leaders and the two governments is

contained in the Atomic Weapon Research Establishment (AWRE) report of

1968, which the Ministry of Defence refuses to release on grounds that it is

classified. But the report said that The Observer had obtained a copy, with the

help of which it was able to flash the information all over the world.

NUCLEAR WASTE

The other, even more worrying problem—the disposal of nuclear waste—is

almost totally unresolved. There is no way yet found to get rid of the nuclear

waste, despite all the romantic propositions by official experts. As things stand

at present and the way nuclear industry wants to deal with the issue, the

industry as well as governments cannot be trusted. They lack the imagination,

tact and the willingness to discuss in public without the people feeling that

they are being either bypassed or dodged. A powerful popular movement is

taking shape and local groups being formed to fight the dumping of nuclear

waste often done in a surreptitious manner. It has created much anxiety in the

people living in vulnerable areas. Local authorities, counties, villages are

organising themselves to declare their areas as Nuclear Free Zones. In the end,

though these movements may not succeed against the powerful machinery of

the State, they are prepared to go to court or court arrest as part of their

nonviolent resistance against government policy on the subject.

In recent months quite a few groups have succeeded in preventing the

authorities from unloading the waste in their areas, and forcing them to take

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their cargo back. Last September in Britain low level radioactive waste was

stranded in railway sidings by a union ban instead of being dumped at sea. It

had to go back to the Atomic Energy Research Establishment at Harwell in

Oxfordshire, UK. A report said: "The embarrassing return of the waste that

nobody wants has been caused by British Rail, which announced it needed the

wagons that had carried the waste and were still sitting in sidings in Bicester

Oxfordshire.

"...The Government and the industry had intended to dump some 3,600 tonnes

of nuclear waste at sea' this, summer despite an international attempt to ban

the practice this year. Britain leads the world in the amount of radioactive

waste it dumps in the sea and has been the target of anti-nuclear campaigning

both here and abroad...A spokesman for the Nuclear Industry Radioactive

Waste Executive said...that it was hoped that eventually the material could be

dumped at sea, but in the meantime it would be stored in the shed that

originally housed it."58

One practice is to store the waste in concrete drums to be dropped on the

seabed. There is no data anywhere to say for certain what would happen to it

in course of time and in case of earthquake or any such natural catastrophe.

There are surely cases where the waters have been contaminated and animal

life has come to an end. A serious, problem that concerns the peace movement

and the environmentalists is the transport of the waste through congested

areas by the road transport or by rail. Numerous accidents have happened

which should prove a warning to the governments about dangers that are

obvious. On the contrary, governments and their concerned departments

pretend that nothing serious can happen. They can even be so arrogant as to

say that nothing serious can happen if an accident takes place in transit of

either nuclear waste or even warheads.

On April 26, 1984, a British train carrying waste and a car collided. The report

did not mention the place of accident. It evidently posed a threat to public

safety, but the Ministry of Transport said that the collision had taken place at

less than five miles per hour and that the flask carrying the waste was made to

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withstand drops of thirty feet. One naturally wonders what would be the

consequences if the accident were to be more serious and the drop much

above the strength limit of the flask.59

As there is no real answer to the problem of the disposal of nuclear waste, to

pretend then to know everything, is to deceive the public, who normally

cannot judge the credibility of the 'experts', government or private. Some

'experts' can give statements such as: The problem is simple because all the

nuclear waste of a plant can be packed in a one foot cube and deposited safely

in a place where nobody goes. And, of course, who will go a mile deep under

water on the sea-bed! So the public should not be over anxious about the

problem of nuclear waste." A country may have only 3 or 4 nuclear plants at a

given period, but may be planning dozens more in the future. Today the

amount of nuclear waste may be only a truckload, but what will be the

situation, how 'simple' would it remain when it reaches the size like that of the

U.S. or UK i.e. when the quantity of the waste goes to several thousand tonnes

every year ?

Moreover, there is also the question of the quality of the transport system. In

Delhi not a day goes by when I do not see a truck or a lorry lying broken down

on its side. What if a truck carrying the deadly drums crashes and the cargo is

thrown more than thirty feet away into the street. In Europe and north

America the public has become aware of the dangers of nuclear weapons and

has organised campaigns to force their governments to change their policies.

Some time ago, for instance, members of the Greenpeace's Dutch branch

anchored off the Cumbrian coast were threatening to block the discharge pipe

from Sellefield if the Nordic resolution was not accepted. The resolution

demanded that the best technology should be employed to stop radio activity

being pumped into the sea. The problem does not end there. The challenge is

not as to how to postpone the solution but to find it now before it is too late!

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SUMMARY OF PART ONE

During the last thirty years or so public debate has been carried out by peace

movements and their associated organisations in the form of writings—books,

journals, reports, investigations, manuals; briefings, letters; exhibitions; audio-

visual material, films etc.; research work into the questions of peace and

justice and its popularisation; demonstrations against government policies on

the issue of war and peace, including civil disobedience leading to

imprisonments and even death sentences; nonviolent training movement and

similar media of public education. These have equipped us with fairly

sophisticated information on the politics of peace. It is obvious that this essay

could touch only a fraction of what has been happening in the field of peace

education. Every day new material in different media is being added to our

already very rich store of knowledge. It is not possible here, even to think of

presenting a comprehensive worldwide picture of the institutions and processes

that are operating as peace education programmes. As I wrote these words, I

received by post some excellent new material on peace education, teaching

aids and teachers organisation for peace from the UK.

Here in this section I have tried to say that the peace movement in its widest

sense, today includes nonviolent activists; pacifists; anti-nuclear weapon

campaigns; anti-nuclear-energy groups; groups for total and general

disarmament; unilateralists as well as multi-lateralists; peace researchers;

women's

liberation

groups;

anti-racists;

gay

liberation

groups;

environmentalists; groups for appropriate technologies; professional groups

concerned with peace; and many others. They are all concerned with human

survival, justice and dignity. They all are convinced that public education on

matters of peace, along with training to act in opposition to the wrong and

dangerous policies of the establishment are imperative for building a world

without war. Above all, they all participate in the process of bringing lasting

peace on earth. I could include only a very few of them in the book. And the

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work that I have described is only a minute fraction of what is going on in the

peace movement.

Before concluding this part of the book I want to repeat what I have said in so

many words, that today we have all the information, technical as well as

political, about the destructibility of war, and the means to communicate that

information to the masses of population around the world. At the same time

we have now enough confidence in ourselves to be able to reform our social

and political structures, if only we could make a breakthrough.

WHAT COULD THIS BREAKTHROUGH BE?

What could this breakthrough be? More information? More demonstrations? Yes

and No! But more No than Yes. Information has often led to playing number

games, particularly in the field of disarmament. Lot of what we read or hear in

terms of peace proposals—not only from the establishment, e.g. SALT 1, SALT 2

or the rest of it, but also from some independent research and peace

organisations—looks like mathematical puzzles. They give arithmetical

calculations of who should reduce how many war-heads and tanks etc.

But what is the use of this exercise when we know that the present stockpiles

of nuclear weapons—I am leaving the question of conventional weapons out of

this discussion altogether—can annihilate the world's population thirty to forty

times over. I can understand dying once, unless it is in an allegorical sense. But

no! War is not poetic; it is no longer the kind of war of which poets sang songs

of bravery or separation of lovers. Those elements have totally disappeared

from the concept of war and the battlefield. There are no battlefields as such

left on this earth; every inch of it has turned into a battlefield. War today is a

curse on humanity and unless pure and simple sacrifices are made to get rid of

this curse, it will destroy us and all the beauty and goodness we still are

endowed with. The breakthrough can be brought about only by a qualitative

change in our understanding of human nature and in our actions against war

and more so against its causes— simultaneously and quickly.

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Out of the millions of people who are worried about human survival, can just

ten per cent of them be convinced that to liberate humanity from this modern

curse personal sacrifices have to be made. Can we change our educational

systems from being factories for manufacturing self-centred immature

individuals into centres of learning the art of living cooperatively and in

harmony with all existence and at the same time the courage of saying no to

power?

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PART TWO

EDUCATION FOR PEACE

—a thesis

A former U.S. ambassador to Russia, Prof. George Kennan, said in a speech in

1981: "We have gone on piling weapon upon weapon, missile upon missile...

like the victims of some sort of hypnotism, like men in a dream, like lemmings

heading for the sea..."60

I want to ask a question. Why do we behave like lemmings? Why do we allow it

to happen? Lord Mountbatten once said in a speech in Strasbourg, in 1978, that

the world "now stands on the brink of the final abyss..." In the same speech he

asked: "How can we stand by and do nothing to prevent the destruction of our

world... Do the frightening facts about the arms race, which show that we are

rushing headlong towards a precipice, make any of those responsible for this

disastrous course pull themselves together and reach the brakes?" Mountbatten

said that the answer is "NO".

On 23rd October, 1981, the evening before the great demonstration against

nuclear weapons took place in London, Nicholas Humphrey gave the Bronowski

lecture on the BBC. He said: "I want to ask why the answer can be 'No'... As a

psychologist I am concerned with the feelings, perceptions and motives of

individual human beings. When a lemming runs, it is not pushed or pulled by

outside forces, it runs to destruction on its own four feet. It is as individuals

that we can and might apply the brakes, and as individuals that we can and do

fail. Responsibility for this disastrous course begins right here".61

Unfortunately, not enough people are either mentally prepared or willing to

take the responsibility on themselves as individuals to apply the brakes, to say,

No, I shall not allow it. As an educationist and artist craftsman, I want to

explore the reasons behind this inability of individuals to act and be counted,

when it comes to the crunch.

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Once, while travelling in Scandinavia in 1966,1 had a meeting with some

Swedish draft-age men, who had declared themselves as conscientious

objectors (C.O.s) to military service and opted for alternative civilian service.

They were about One hundred and fifty out of approximately six hundred that

year receiving training before starting alternative service in hospitals, old

people's homes etc. Towards the end of the meeting I asked the group if they

knew the total number of conscripts that year. I think they said "over twenty-

five thousand". Then I asked if they could explain why on earth only six

hundred out of twenty-five thousand had opted for C.O. status, especially as

life of a C.O. in Sweden was somewhat easier than that of a conscripted

soldier? They could go home every week and their girl-friends and relatives

could visit them every now and then.

The answer to my question came after the meeting was over, when ten or

twelve of them came to me and suggested that we continue the discussion

informally in the bar. "The fact is," one of them said, "they are afraid of making

their own decisions." Another added: "Most young men dislike military service,

yet to write NO on the form is difficult. After a period of dilemma they just

sign the form, designed precisely in a manner to place the draftee in that

particular kind of dilemma."

Draft-age men in Sweden—and many other countries—have to report for

registration for military service, which is compulsory and a constitutional

requirement. But if anybody wants to do "non-combatant" service he has to

submit a special application for a C.O. status. The application must be in

writing and should state the grounds for the objection. It should also provide

names and addresses of two references.62 In short, it is a procedure in which

one has to think and make-up one's mind this way or the other. The young man

who answered my question—and all the others nodded in approval—added: "At

the moment of decision-making you find yourself saying YES, which seems to be

the easiest escape. After all the life in the military, specially in peacetime, is

not too bad, and its length is four months shorter than that of alternative

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service." The essence of it all is that in one case the decision is made for you

and in the other have to make your own decision.

The crux of the matter is that in spite of the claims of modern up-bringing and

education that they prepare the individual for facing life sensibly and

courageously, men and women today are the least prepared to creatively

confront the challenges of life and the dilemmas it presents in their day-to-day

living. Most of the young men who eventually put YES on their draft forms did

npt know what actually they wanted. "When Ali asked Mohammad, 'What am I

to do that I may not waste my time?' the Prophet answered, 'Learn to know

thyself."63 Modern education spends all its resources in teaching how to know

the facts about the universe and go to the moon, but totally ignores the need

of self-knowledge, which alone can help in [resolving the dilemmas that are

presented at every new step one takes in life.

But before going into the main thesis I want to point out that we have used

fear as the major tool of motivation. If we go hack to the beginnings of the

campaigns for nuclear disarmament in the late fifties in various countries, we

recall that their slogans emphasised mainly two issues. The first was a concern

with the horrific nature of nuclear weapons and the speed with which they

were being stock-piled, and tested over ground, underwater and underground.

The cold war psychology and the behaviour of the two big powers—the U.S,

with its allies and the USSR with their satellite governments- made the issue of

stock-piling of nuclear weapons and the worldwide spread of nuclear bases

most urgent. The other message of the campaigns was that the arms race must

be immediately stopped by exerting successful public pressure on a massive

scale all over the world, otherwise the world will blow up in pieces, as it was

at a precipice of total annihilation.

It is a fact that the two sides, the U.S. and USSR have been at loggerheads with

each other all throughout the period following the Second World War. And who

knows, it could have happened if the mass movement had not come into being

to mount such an intensive and worldwide pressure on the governments of the

concerned powers. Even the top-most scientists' community used its influence

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through the Pugwash conference, which at that time was to be reckoned with

as a very important independent body of experts against nuclear weapons.

However, the campaign could not sustain itself for too long. The average

citizen who was told of the coming deluge saw that the world after all has not

come to an end as the campaign had predicted. Life went on as usual—even im-

proving on matters of affluence. The fear was short lived. Psychologically

speaking the will to live on supersedes all other emotions. One likes to think 'it

cannot happen to me'. People need an excuse, which was provided by the

Partial Test Ban Treaty of 1963, and which created the welcome illusion of the

beginning of the end of the nuclear race. But in reality "the frequency of tests

increased after the 1963 PTBT with 629 underground and atmospheric tests up

to 1976"64. In religion, in education and in politics fear has- played a central

role. But it has not worked. On the contrary, it has deadened our sensitivity

and made our humanity blunt. Fear destroys initiative and spontaneity. It is not

a reliable factor to be used for motivating people to act against evil and

injustice.

I shall try to examine the fear that is involved in the theory of learning on the

basis of reward and punishment. A simple example of the application of this

theory is the technique used for training circus animals. Why should "a tiger or

for that matter any animal jump through a ring of blazing fire? It does it

because it has been made to experience that there is some delicious food

waiting for him beyond the ring of fire. It is in response to a stimulus from

outside which has modified its behaviour to do things which it would not under

normal conditions.

Application of this theory is not very different in the case of children. The only

difference is in the quality and quantity of punishment and reward. Most

experts of behaviour modification perceive their strategy of changing

behaviour patterns of children—and also adults—as a series of manipulations of

the environment in a systematic manner, already determined on the basis of

prior analysis. In the ultimate analysis, fear plays an important role in

modifying behaviour. An organism responds in a certain manner due to the fear

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of punishment or of not receiving reward. One danger, apart from its inade-

quacies, is that by the use of this technology by parents or teachers, children

could become "addicted" to doing things only when rewarded or punished. On

the other hand, there can be situations where rewards or punishments can

become non-stimulants or non-reinforcers.

My contention is that the application of this theory by nature is entirely

different in its methods as well as in its results. The way it is mostly applied in

educational processes in the schools or at home, creates a different mentality

and different kind of responses in the child. A child who burns its fingers by

touching a hot surface will learn that it hurts to do so, and therefore it is

better to be more careful next time. If the hot surface is an artificial creation

by a behaviour modification agency, it is likely that someday the child will

know about it and start hating the person who did it. The end result will be

negative and harmful. On the other hand when the 'stimulant' is part of the

natural and normal situation, the result will be more desirable. In that case the

child would reason within himself or herself about its cause and effect and also

regarding the question: whose responsibility was it in inflicting the pain or

punishment for that matter?

In other words, manipulation of the environment in a systematic manner based

on prior analysis is not an effective way to teach. Such stimulants have not to

be artificially created, they are there in the child's or adult's normal life

situation. A caring and loving home or school, will have all the stimulants and

necessary protections against undue harm that any of the stimulants may do to

the child, e.g. fire in the living room Would have a proper protective screen;

one that would naturally become hot enough for the child to learn the

character of heat. To put this in the form of a principle : Anything that hinders

the innate human faculties and processes of learning by experience and

personal responsibility cannot inculcate real understanding, and help in the

processes of internalization.

Education should not be a process to teach to perform. It is a way, firstly to

liberate ourselves from the burdens with which we have been born, e.g.

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distrust, instincts or withdrawal etc., and secondly to equip us with self-

knowlege and the know-how for enhancing those of our innate strengths which

unite us with the world around in peace and togetherness.

I am not denying the fact that fear plays an important role in our lives- This

role can be either of positive or negative nature. To illustrate the point. I give

the example of the Greenham Common Protest Camp. The Camp was an

initiative by a small group of women who felt desperate about the prospect of

the U.S. cruise missiles being sited in their country. More and more women are

acknowledging their fear of nuclear weapons and gaining confidence to take

action. They say: "Fear is the starting point..."65 Thousands of other people also

have this kind of fear, but it has not turned into action in their lives. The

Greenham Common sisters have transcended the fear in the ordinary sense. For

them the action they have taken is also for building "a life worth living".

Moreover comparatively they are very few in number.

I should explain what I mean by fear not being a reliable factor to be used for

motivating people to act. I shall give here two examples. In Bernard Shaw's

play, The Black Woman in Search of God, there is a scene of a man sitting

under a tree and talking to the Black Woman. He said that he did not know how

to climb trees. After a while all of a sudden the Black Woman told him in a

panicky voice that he was sitting on a crocodile; the log of wood on which he

sat did look like a crocodile. He jumped up and found himself on the tree. Now

he could not climb down, even after being convinced that the log of wood was

not a crocodile. He had to be frightened again, this time of a poisonous snake

hanging over his head so that he would jump down in desperation. Fear worked

wonderfully, but the responses of the old man were totally mechanical. In the

dictionary explanation of Behaviorism it also says: "The extreme behaviorist has

no use for consciousness or conscious process"66

The second example concerns one of my own experiences. Bengal suffered

from very severe floods in 1943. As student volunteers some of us went to the

nearby affected villages to do relief work. In the course of this work at one

time two of us reached near a house which had already two feet of water

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around and it was rising rapidly. There were a pair of bullocks and a cart in the

courtyard. Two small children were scraping the last grains of rice from a bowl

on the verandah, which also would submerge in water any time. The family

could load the cart with their possessions in five or six minutes but they had

not done it when we reached them. We tried to persuade them to come with

us to a safe place. There was no response whatsoever.

The picture of that moment has been engraved so deeply in my mind that I can

never forget it. There was death standing right in front of them and by their

side there were people to help—asking, persuading, even pushing them to

escape. Yet the family, especially the couple, young and strong in looks, and

an old man, perhaps the grandfather of the children, who were too young to

know what was happening, stood completely stunned with no wish left to

move. Fear of death for them had reached the height that all the motivation to

live had evaporated. We had to actually drag them away; which was easy

enough because they had no resistance left. There seems to be a border line

somewhere in the middle of the scale of fear which neutralizes motivation, and

beyond which there develops a mechanism against any thought of fear. At that

point one loses all the initiative.

I can understand making use of fear for therapy, in which case it will be a

matter of deciding the maximum 'degree of fear that can and should be used to

motivate those patients who, for one reason or another, have lost initiative or

hope, due to some neurological or other reason. In other words it is a matter of

discovering and deciding the position of that border line. But the fact is that

for a majority of people there is some other force different from fear which is

more positive and lasting, and which comes from within one's self. In this

[thesis I have not discussed "special education", i.e. therapy etc. though its

implication could be applicable for that too.

The factor of ignorance, however pure and innocent, or for that matter

deliberate is an element equally to be rejected. Nicholas Humphrey cites an

experience. "When I was a child we had an old pet tortoise we called Ajax. One

autumn Ajax, doubtless looking for a winter home, crawled unnoticed into the

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pile of wood and bracken my father was making for Guy Fawkes' Day. As days

passed and more and more pieces of tinder were added to the pile, Ajax must

have felt more and more secure; every day he was getting greater protection

from the frost and rain. On 5th November bonfire and tortoise were reduced to

ashes."67 Are there some of us who still believe that the piling up of weapons

upon weapons adds to our security that the dangers are nothing compared to

the assurance they provide?

In the earlier section of this book I have presented a brief survey of the work of

the various wings of the peace movement, training, research, public

information, peace action groups as well as of those which relate indirectly to

the problem of war and peace, such as the environmentalists, counter-culture

groups etc. I am extremely impressed by the quality and quantity of the

information these movements are providing to the experts as well as the public

on the dangers of wars in general and nuclear weapons in particular. And yet

when it comes to take drastic action against the dangers that hang over our

heads, most of us lack the inclination and courage to say as individuals: "I shall

not allow it to happen".

Why does it happen that way? Why isn't all that information, undisputedly true

and efficiently conveyed, making the impact that its gatherers, and

disseminators aim at? The answer to this question lies somewhere in the inner

layers of the human personality and its developmental processes. It seems

quite obvious that mere information need not necessarily create motivation.

Motivation can be of different types, qualities and importance. For example, if

A has no particular thing to do and is lazying in the evening and B drops in with

information that a good film is showing on the TV or at the local cinema, A may

be tempted to say : let us go. Here, the given information does provide motiva-

tion to A for overcoming the laziness. It will depend, of course, on so many

other factors, e.g. whether A is fond of films or films of a particular kind or

whether A likes the judgement or the company of B etc. etc.

However, if the information received should involve a major decision-taking

process its impact might be different. Moreover, if acting upon the information

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received meant risks life, money or image, etc, the result may be entirely

different. What would determine the response would be the degree of

predisposition of A to act (or react) in a given situation. The degree of

predisposition (or absence of predisposition) would again depend upon the

level of cognitive development of the person and his or her capacity to make

judgements as well as the capacity to take social responsibility, the urge to

exercise one's power, and the preparedness to face suffering/punishment if

taking action is considered illegal in the court of law. Based on observations

and deductions I present a thesis:

A peaceful and warless world cannot be created by providing

information and developing intellectual virtues alone, but, first

and foremost, by fostering moral self-discipline and by making an

aesthetic approach to education, in all its aspects and stages, for

the development of men and women to their full humanity, and

their capacity to live in creative peace and cooperation with one

another and all existence.

A person may have all the knowledge as to how to act in a given situation, but

be unable to control his or her impulses and desires. One may have all the

understanding but be a creature of bad habits. Knowledge and self-discipline

are, therefore, two different virtues. Intellectual virtue can be codified and

generally accepted as a system of beliefs and customs; but moral virtue is the

inner dynamics of our psychological make-up. It is necessary to explain the

word 'moral' that I have used here. Unfortunately the concept of morality is too

much attached to religion or understood as rationalistic or legalistic

codification of right and wrong. But, morality is neither a mystery nor a

judgement. It is the exercise of a free choice. It is a spontaneous act of

volition. Its basis is neither in blind faith not in reason, but in a particular kind

of discipline.68 The only problem is how to develop that kind of discipline and

to ensure that the choice will be made in the right direction.

What has actually happened in the modern society is that the sense of

responsibility has changed its character. In the contemporary society

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responsibility has gradually shrunk to its present dimensions; and responsible

subjects consist exclusively of adults who are alive and in their right minds. In

traditional society, particularly of the pre-modern times, however, was based

on a set of beliefs and feelings which formed a whole which must be retained

and defended. The Kernel of these beliefs was (and is) the feeling of the

sacred, which again was the source of all morality and religion. On the other

hand in modern society, which is, in its outlook and lifestyle western oriented,

even in other than Western countries, morality has become more personalized

and subjectivised. In other words collective conscience has little role in it.

There would be nothing wrong in morality becoming a matter of personal deci-

sion, in fact, today it would be very desirable, but as it is, personalizing

morality has made it a commodity which can be bought in the court of law or

in1 temple, mosque or church. If personalized morality has the foundation in

the autonomy of conscience, it will make an entirely different impact on the

personality, specially in relation to making moral judgements.

Talking about the development of moral judgement in children Jean Piaget

says: "...we have recognized the existence of two moralities in the child, that

of constraint and that of cooperation. The morality.of constraint is that,of duty

pure and simple and of heteronomy. The child accepts from adult a certain

number of commands to which it must submit whatever the circumstances may

be. Right is what conforms with these commands; wrong is what fails to do so;

the intention plays a very small part in this conception, and the responsibility

is entirely objective. But, first parallel with this morality, and then in contrast

to it, there is gradually developed a morality of cooperation, whose guiding

principle is solidarity and which puts the primary emphasis on autonomy of

conscience, on intentionality, and consequently on subjective responsibility.

Now it should be noted that while the ethics of mutual respect is, from the

point of view of values, opposed to that of unilateral respect, the former is

nevertheless the natural outcome of the latter from the point of view of what

causes this evolution. In so far as the child tends towards manhood, the

relations with the adult tend towards equality. The unilateral respect

belonging to constraint is not a stable system, and the equilibrium towards

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which it tends is no other than mutual respect. It cannot, therefore, be

mentioned with regard to the child that the final performance of subjective

over objective responsibility is the outcome of antagonistic forces in relation to

responsibility in general. Rather it is virtue of a sort of inner logic that the

more evolved follow upon the more primitive forces, though in structure the

former differ qualitatively from the latter."69

The question is: How much it really happens in real life and if it does, under

what kind of situation? Which schools or how many, families understand this

'natural' evolution of the concept of responsibility in children? Moreover, there

are so many other factors and situations that influence the growth of the

individual, e.g. the values that are upheld in the society. Are these values

divisive or do they nurture the sense of responsibility growing from within?

Before we try to explore the sources of this kind of moral self-discipline let us

look into the nature of man. "Man is in nature, subject to its dictates and

accidents, yet he transcends nature because he lacks the unawareness which

makes the animal a part of nature—as one with it. Man is confronted with the

frightening conflict of being the prisoner of nature, yet being free in his

thought; being a part of nature, and yet to be as it were a freak of nature ;

being neither here nor there. Human self-awareness has made man a stranger

in the world, separate, lonely, and frightened."70

Man is both body and soul, angel and animal. This is also the classic view of

man expressed in most religions of the world. The body is in conflict with the

spirit, the angel with the animal. The essence of man is the combination of this

conflict in him and the urge to find a solution of the conflict. What can he do

to find a harmony to free him from the pain of aloneness and to make him at

home in the world and to find a sense of unity? The answer to the question

must help him to overcome the sense of separateness and to gain a sense of

union and of belonging. According to Eric Fromm it can be a regressive answer,

which means going back to where he came from, i.e. to animal life. He can try

to do away with that which makes him human and yet tortures him: his reason

and self-awareness. Alternatively, it can be a "progressive solution, that of

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finding a new harmony... by the full development of all human forces, of the

humanity within oneself."71

If the essence of man is neither good nor evil, but a contradiction that

demands the search for the solution which again creates new contradictions,

then he can indeed make the choice. On what factors does this freedom to

choose between contradictory inclinations depend? "Quite obviously", says

Fromm, "the most important factor lies in the respective strengths of the

contradictory inclinations, particularly in the strength of the unconscious

aspects of these inclinations. But if we ask what factors support freedom of

choice even if the irrational inclination is stronger, we find that the decisive

factor in choosing the better rather than the worse lies in awareness. 1.

awareness of what constitute good or evil; 2. which action in the concrete

situation is an appropriate means to the desired end ; 3. awareness of the

forces behind the apparent wish; that means the discovery or unconscious

desires ; 4. awareness of the real possibilities between which one can choose ;

5. awareness of the consequences of the one choice as against the other ; 6.

awareness of the fact that awareness as such is not effective unless it is

accompanied by the will to act, by the readiness to suffer the pain of frustra-

tion that necessarily results from an action contrary to one's passions."72

Fromm is so correct in giving such great importance to awareness. But I do not

think that awareness as such can generate the "will to act" and the "readiness

to suffer the pain...from an action contrary to one's passions". Fromm's position

is based entirely on rationality. As it has already been stated that in spite of all

the possible awareness it is very hard to take an action which is certain to

cause pain. Have we not seen time and again that many a great intellectual

and student of human behaviour and mind has failed to take action against

gross human suffering and injustice for fear of reprisal from the establishment.

How many of them have often sold their souls to save their skin knowing well in

their hearts that what they were doing was morally wrong.

In all lands and civilization there are loads of examples where out of fear of

persecution—physical, psychological or political—or for the attraction of

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money, position and power intellectuals, academics and so-called leaders have

violated the dictates of their ethical standards or values. In my own country,

India, to be morally sound and honest today is to be impractical or anti-social.

Social responsibility there is treated as a risky and expensive business—not only

in the matters of life and death, but in the day-to-day and hour-to- hour life. In

the market, on roads and in work situations, everybody seems to be looking

after their own selfish interests. India is not alone in this matter. There is very

little evidence of genuine cooperation or "l sense of responsibility anywhere in

the modern world. Why is it so? Why has the concept of responsibility shrunk

in the modern society ? Why are there so few people who are alive and in their

right minds?

My contention is that the will to act even if it means suffering goes far beyond

awareness and rationality. Will to act under such circumstances transcends

rationality, the realm of our intellectual existence. There is a point where the

choice would depend on one's moral maturity, moral discipline. Moral virtue,

which the modern psychologists would call integrated personality, comes about

as a result of habit; which in turn is the product of a certain kind of lifestyle

and inner discipline introduced at the early stages of our upbringing and

fostered throughout the life. And this means that moral virtue should have the

fundamental priority in education at home, in school and in the community.

This leads me back to the earlier question. Why is man today unable to

internalize the information which he finds intellectually sensible and useful?

The answer is that educational systems everywhere begin and end with the

pursuit of intellectual growth of the personality and knowingly or unknowingly

distorts the emotional side of our being. Education today stresses the

development of logical faculties, which are the functions of that part of our

psychic apparatus which is called ego and which represents reason and common

sense. I like to give the old fashioned simile of the human mind being like an

iceberg of which only one-tenth part remains outside and nine-tenths

submerged under water. The one-tenth being the conscious and the nine-

tenths unconscious mind. Present day education handles the conscious and

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totally ignores the unconscious, the id, which contains the passions and the

source of all energy.

I quote from A Dictionary of Psychoanalysis, "The 'id' contains everything that is

present at birth, that is fixed in the constitution—above all, therefore, the

instincts, which originate from the somatic organization and which find a first

psychical expression (in the id) in forms unknown to us— Freud (1940)... the id

is unorganized, the ego organized ; the id observes the pleasure principle, the

ego the reality principle ; the id is emotional, the ego rational; the id conforms

to the primary processes which ignore differences and are oblivious of

contradiction and of space and time, the ego conforms to the secondary

processes which are analytical and respect the principles of contradiction and

categories of space and time."73 Under the impact of modern education—and

also our upbringing—the id, the unconscious, does not only remain unlived, but

is also repressed and regressed. Education slows down and distorts the process

by which precepts are converted into images forming part of our mental

furniture and structure.

Herbert Read explains it very well: "The whole ideal of education... is

intellectual. It tends to become even narrower than that: the ideal... is

scientific. Even in subjects which used to be described as 'liberal'—philosophy,

literature and history—the spirit of teaching becomes increasingly 'objective' or

'positive' and all questions of 'value' are rigidly excluded...

"I agree to a limited extent a discipline of the will is given in games education.

I do not deplore the time given to games in our schools—on the contrary, it is

often the only time well spent. But the moral discipline thus inculcated is of

very limited duration—it has no depth, it does not involve the imagination or

the emotional life in any profound sense. Games morality, the team spirit, has

become indeed just one more social convention, though to be 'a good sport'

generally means to behave like a human being rather than a conventional

citizen—in other words to disregard 'morality'. But 'morality', in the sense of a

code of right and wrong, has to be distinguished from the moral values of good

and evil. Morality itself has been intellectualized, codified, and made a matter

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of rational judgement instead of spontaneous action. Moral education in the

ancient world, when Plato and Aristotle handled the theme, meant the

learning of something like good manners or good form, good doing and good

making; it was a dynamic concept, a concept of nobility, of wisdom, of

courage...but I am quite sure that our existing systems of education lead right

away from social union, and dissolve the subtle bonds of love and fellowship,

and leave us a nerve-ridden aggressive herd."74

The modern system of education is partitive; instead of uniting its tendency is

to divide. Instead of fostering mutual aid and love, it generates competition

and hatred. It is based on a caste system and hierarchical divisions; not only in

age and professional groups, but by deciding that certain tests should

determine the right of an individual child to proceed beyond a particular stage.

Within each group similar tests and examinations determine the place of the

individual child within the group. The procedure has the effect of pitting child

against child in an unhealthy struggle for places. This process accentuates the

sense of social disunity.

The education which accentuates disunity cannot foster a sense of community,

and where there is no sense of community, in other words, no sense of

belonging, it cannot be expected to give any importance to social responsibility

or those values which recognize the need of human beings living with each

other in a community based on sharing and mutual help. Fullness of life cannot

be realized in a disunited society and where there is no evidence of fullness of

life there cannot be real knowledge, that is of the integrated self.

What kind of education will promote social union—social integrity? The same

kind of education which promises personal integrity. Personal as well as social

integrity are judged in relation to others. In relation to society there is not

much to say in terms of social or personal integrity in the case of one who lives

in isolation, e.g. in a cave or on the Himalayas. But, one who is a part of the

community both kinds of integrity are essential. Hence education must

embrace the one and the many, the individual and the community. If

education, in any of its aspects or stages tends to emphasize, even indirectly,

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the individual against the group, it is obviously a disruptive education. Judging

from this point of view it would be correct to say that modern systems of

education are disruptive to social unity, and by definition, therefore, also to

personal integrity.

Before discussing the question: what should be the basis for the reconstruction

of education for creating a peaceful and integrated personality, we should

touch on another important aspect of human life in its first few years,

especially in relation to the origin of aggressivity. Freud and his followers have

convincingly pointed out some facts about the existence of aggressive and

destructive instincts in man. Man is not born with these instincts, but they are

an evitable consequence of the infant's adaptation of external reality. The

strength of these instincts depend upon the degree of severity of the

experiences beginning from that of birth and the early months and years of

one's life. These experiences of infancy get buried in the unconscious and

'forgotten'. But they find their way under disguised forms in adult life; and

unless these instincts have the right outlets at the right time they are turned

inwards, with disastrous effects on the behaviour of the individual. The period

of infancy is also a difficult one in the relationship of the infant with its

parents, which again can result in problems of adjustment with the world

around.

I do not propose to discuss the question of pre-Oedipus and Oedipus complexes,

nor do I think it is required to do so. However, a few words here are necessary

to explain the problems related to the growth of aggressivity during infancy.

Freud and some post-Freudians show that the infant's attachment to its

parents, particularly the pre-Oedipus attachment to the mother is one of the

central causes of neurosis or psychosis. In fact Eric Fromm singles out three

phenomena which form the basis for the most vicious and dangerous forms of

human orientation; these are : love of death, malignant narcissism and

symbiotic-incestuous fixation.76 These three orientations when combined, says

Fromm, form the 'syndrome of decay', which prompts men to destroy for the

sake of destruction and hate for the sake of hate. In his book Heart of Man,

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Fromm shows how an extreme case of these orientations can and does build up

a personality like Hitler.

In contrast to the syndrome of decay, Fromm also describes the syndrome of

growth—love of life against love of death; love of man against narcissism; love

of independence as against symbiotic-incestuous fixation. Only in a very small

minority of people is either one of the two syndromes develop to extremes.

Most people, however, develop them to some degrees. And although in theory

each one can choose the direction he wishes to go, in reality most of the forces

today, either within the family or in the community tend to lead the majority

in the direction of decay.

According to Fromm "... most people fail in the art of living not because they

are inherently bad or so without will that they cannot live a better life ; they

fail because they do not wake up and see when they stand at a fork in the road

and have to decide. They are not aware when life asks them a question, and

when they still have alternative answers. Then with each step along the wrong

road it becomes increasingly difficult for them to admit that they are on the

wrong road; often only because they have to admit that they must go back to

the first wrong turn, and must accept the fact that they have wasted energy

and time."76

In Herbert Read's words : "The impulse to violence which gathers in the

individual mind and breaks out in unnatural gusts of passion is a psychosis, and

its origins are open to analysis. Such analysis points to certain deprivations,

absences of satisfaction, unconsciously accumulated clouds of frustration, all

of which may have economic or superstitous sanctions or symptoms, but which

in their mode of operation are essentially psychological. Aggressiveness is a

basic element in human psychology: but its origins are now understood and its

social repercussions might be controlled if proper conditions were provided,

and if upbringing and education were to guide the child into ways of love and

serenity."77

We have now seen that much of the problem is either on account of damage

done during the upbringing of the individual in the family, and/or because of

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the system of modern education, both at school as well as in the community;

probably a combination of both. The problem is twofold. One aspect is

concerned with the need to liberate the personality from those fears and

complexes which have accumulated during infancy and early childhood; the

other aspect is related to the orientation of the personality in the direction of

social integrity. One demands healthy outlets for the energy which has

regressed into destructivity and the other requires growing in the direction of

creativity and social good.

Rabindranath Tagore once wrote: "We have come to this world to accept it, not

merely to know it. We may become powerful by knowledge, but we attain

fullness by sympathy with all existence". Tagore pleads: "...childhood should be

given its full measure of life's draught, for which it has endless thirst. The

young mind should be saturated with the idea that it has been born in a human

world which is in harmony with the world around it."78

Tagore is asking for a programme of education which is based on unity and

harmonious relationship with nature and not intellectual understanding, though

development of rationality will be its inevitable by-product.

Tagore insists that one can reach truth only through sympathy. "The world of

senses in which animals live is limited. Our reason has opened the gate for our

mind into the heart of the infinite. Yet this freedom of reason is but a freedom

in the outer courtyard of existence. Objects of knowledge maintain an infinite

distance from us who are the knowers. For knowledge is not union. Therefore

the further world of freedom awaits us there where we reach truth, not

through feeling it by senses or knowing it by reason, but through union of

perfect sympathy... We perceive the fact of a picture by seeing it, we know

about it by measuring its lines, analysing its colours and studying the laws of

harmony in its composition. But even then it is no realization of the picture,

for which we want an intimate union with it immediate to ourselves."79

Hence, the plan for education should be such that will liberate the individual

from destructive aggressivity and create unity between the individual and the

world around; it will have two qualities: creative and therapeutic. It is a

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matter of developing those qualities upon which liberation and spontaneity

depend. An integrated personality can be built only if these qualities are

brought into harmonious and habitual relationship with the external world.

"This adjustment of the senses to their objective environment is perhaps the

most important function of aesthetic education, but there is another

aspect...Environment of the individual is not entirely objective: his experience

is not only empirical. Within the individual are two 'interior courts' or

existential states which can be externalized by the aid of aesthetic faculties.

One is somatic, and exists even in blind mutes: it is a store of imagery derived,

not from external perception, but from muscular and nervous tensions which

are internal in origin...

"But deeper and more significant than these proprioceptive states are those

levels of the mental personality which are subconscious. More or less detached

features of this level enter into the foreground of our awareness in the form of

images. These images appear with apparent casualness during states of day-

dreaming, hypnosis, or ordinary dreaming, and such imagery is a form of

expression, a language, which can be 'educated'. It is one of the fundamental

elements in all forms of activities."80

The human individual is by nature an artist, a creator. Whatever he receives it

is not with passivity and in his mind it is not accurate physical representation

of the objects around him. In his subconscious he goes on, continuously

adapting it, transforming it into human imagery, tinged with the values he

holds to be the part of his sentiments and imagination.

Plato's The Republic is surely not a model for us to follow in changing all our

social structures. But many of his proposals including those on the sources of

educating the young are of great value for us if we wish to transform the

modern system of education to fit our notion of a society which lives in peace

and harmony within itself and with nature. He writes in The Republic in the

chapter on Education—The First Stage: "And that, is why this stage of education

is crucial. For rhythm and harmony penetrate deeply into the mind and take a

most powerful hold on it, and, if education is good, bring and impart grace and

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beauty, if it is bad, the reverse. And moreover the proper training we propose

to give will make a man quick to perceive the shortcomings of works of art or

nature, whose ugliness he will rightly dislike; anything beautiful he will

welcome gladly, will make it his own and so grow in true goodness of

character; anything ugly he will rightly condemn and dislike, even when he is

still young and cannot understand the reason for so doing, while when reason

comes he will recognize and welcome her as a familiar friend because of his

upbringing."81

We must, therefore, give supreme importance to those activities which

inculcate the sense of rhythm and harmony, for these are the elements which

orientate the personality for making right choices. Even when it comes to

reasoning, Plato said that the aesthetic approach will be best, because it will

give that instinct of relationship which is the key to truth. Aesthetic laws are

inherent in the biological processes of life itself; they are the laws which give

life along the path of ease and efficiency; and it is our business as

educationists to dis» cover these laws in nature or experience and make them

the principles of our teaching. Balance and symmetry, proportion and rhythm,

are basic factors in experience : indeed, they are the only elements by means

of which experience can be organized into persisting patterns, and it is of their

nature that they imply grace, economy and efficiency. What feels right works

right, and the result, as measured by the consciousness of the individual, is a

heightened sense of aesthetic enjoyments.

As a teacher myself, I have observed that children who engage themselves in

spontaneous creative activities are happier children than those who may do

well in their intellectual work but who do not take part in either sports or

creative activities, such as craft work, painting and music. I have also found

that children's drawings which are the results of spontaneous activity, are

direct evidence of their physiological and psychological disposition. Child art

has more clinical value than any other form of evidence. These spontaneous

activities of self-expression create a great deal of self-confidence in children.

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They help in building in them a healthy self-image. After all self-expression is

self-improvement, self-realization.

Self-realization does not merely mean the discovery of one's intellectual

capacities and other skills. It is a process of discovering oneself as a free

individual at peace with oneself on the one hand and on the other being a part

of and in harmony with the larger reality. This harmony is developed in the

individual not by the imposition of laws from the top but by that discipline to

which senses naturally submit. Creative activities are that discipline in which

senses seek quite intuitively harmony, proportion and wholeness of any

experience. The use of medium and tools, such as clay, cotton, wool, leather,

wood, stone, brushes, potter's wheel, saw, impose this discipline by their very

physical nature. This discipline, in fact, is part of our nature, moreover, it

draws us closer to nature, which alone is the supreme example of harmony,

sympathy and union. These are the same laws on which the human community

depends for its own unity and integrity.

Freedom to be close to nature—to be one with it—is to gain one's own freedom

to grow in fullness. In Herbert Read's words, child art "is its passport to

freedom, to the full fruition of all its gifts and talents, to its true and stable

happiness in adult life. Art leads the child out of itself".82

I have already mentioned about the therapeutic aspect of art. I do not here

refer to its tremendous potential as therapy in 'special' education—education of

emotionally disturbed people or the neurotics and the psychotics.

I consider art activities in general having the therapeutic quality which

liberates the individual to a great extent of their aggression and other

repressed instincts accumulated during childhood. I shall give two examples

from my own experience in this field, child art and education. In the Seva-

gram (India) school, we had a boy from a tribal area. His father was a

nationalist rebel during the Quit India freedom struggle, and was waiting for

trial, in solitary confinement. The Gonds are a hard and warring people. The

boy, ten years of age, was not only endowed with his tribal characteristics, but

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he was also emotionally highly tense. He used to get violent with other

children.

I took him in my class and gave him all the freedom to spend as much time as

he liked in art and craft activities. He liked it; interestingly, he often drew

pictures of historical heroes. He was also encouraged to join in hard physical

work such as chopping fire wood. In a year or so he was a different person,

responsible and active in a constructive sense, and he continued making

interesting pictures. To put it simply: his need was to give vent to the extra

energy and frustrations and anger he had accumulated during months and

years. I wonder, what would have happened if he had gone to an ordinary

school. He would have, perhaps, come out as an anti-social and thoroughly

alienated person.

The other case is of a girl of fourteen years, but who had not grown beyond

eight or nine. She always sat in a corner in every class and did or said nothing.

All the teachers considered her nearly useless socially. She herself knew that

nobody cared for her. In the art class also she did nothing for months. The only

difference was that the teacher often talked to her and asked if she would also

like to make a picture like other children. One day she came and pushed a

piece of paper on my desk and ran away feeling shy. The paper had a bright

golden—cadmium yellow to be correct —patch resembling a person sitting on a

floor. This, her first attempt to say something, was probably, the expression of

her joy and gratitude to the teacher for being treated like any other child in

the class. Later she told me that it was my portrait! Next time I asked her to

make a picture specially for me to keep. This was a picture of an elephant in

some sort of folk style. 1 was astonished at the imagery of this girl. At last she

discovered herself, and in six months she was our best "painter", recognized by

the whole community. She became self-confident, more active and

responsible.

My experience of the Sevagram experiment convinced me that children in

whose life creative activities become spontaneous and joyful grow into, more

mature individuals at peace with themselves. It is similar to another

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observation I have made in different communities. In general people who live

on the land in activities such as farming and gardening, and also those who

make their livelihood by arts and handicrafts—making things—are by and large

more disinclined towards war and war-like activities than those who do more

intellectual type of work. Even among people who are engaged in art and

music, but who have fallen into the rat race must be excluded from our

example of creative people, for their motivation has shifted from creativity to

competition.

This disinclination towards war in the peasant and the artisan can be attributed

to two factors. The work that they do, as has already been mentioned, provide

them with healthy outlets for their emotions and probably sublimates their

aggression. However it is not the outlet of aggressive instincts which is so

important here; but the very fact that their activities are such that they are at

one with nature and the natural material which they handle.

According to Indian as well as Chinese aesthetics it is of supreme importance

that the maker should feel completely identified with the object that he

makes. Writing on Chinese Painting Anand Coomaraswamy said: "The Chinese

artist does not merely observe but identifies himself with the landscape or

whatever it may be that he will represent. The story is told of a famous painter

of horses who was found one day in his studio rolling on his back like a horse:

reminded that he might really become a horse, he ever afterwards painted only

Buddhas. An icon is made to be imitated not admired. In just the same way in

India the imager is required to identify himself in detail with the form to be

represented. Such an identification, indeed, is the final goal of any

contemplation reached only when the original distinction of subject breaks

down and there remains only the knowing, in which the knower and the known

are merged. If this seems at all strange to us, whose concept of knowledge is

always objective, let us at least remember that an 'identification* was also

presupposed in mediaeval European procedure; in Dante's words, "He who

would paint a figure, if he cannot be it, cannot draw it."83

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I want to remove the chances of a misunderstanding that might arise at this

stage. When I use the term aesthetic or art, it is in the widest possible sense.

At the same time it incorporates the essence of a perfect quotation from

Coomaraswamy that I had once seen in a place, that I am unable to place my

finger on at this moment. It reads somewhat as follows: An artist is not a

special kind of a man but every man is a special kind of artist. There is no

difference in the processes involved in painting, music, craft or cooking. Plato

writes: "The graphic arts are full of the same qualities and so are the related

crafts, weaving and embroidery, architecture and the manufacture of furniture

of all kinds; and the same is true of living things, animals and plants. For in all

of them we find beauty and ugliness. And ugliness of form and bad rhythm and

disharmony are akin to poor quality expression and character, and |their

opposites are akin to represent good character and discipline."84

This quality of identifying with the subject of the final art product by the artist

is universally observed in child art. I could give an endless number of examples

of children's capacity to get totally absorbed not only in the act of painting or

modelling' but in the "drama" that is the subject matter of the picture or

model. A child of nine years once made a picture of a landscape with a bullock

tied to a tree across a brook and a boy trying to cross the brook to go and bring

the animal to-> the shed, as it had started raining. He was holding an umbrella.

The boy slipped and fell down and the umbrella-flew away. Just before he was

going to give finishing touches to the picture, he took it and kept it at a

distance to have | a good look at it. I was all this time observing him from-the

window. After placing the picture against a wall he started walking backward.

His right hand was > in a position as if he had the umbrella in his hand. All of a

sudden he acted the falling boy and moved as if to catch the umbrella which

had flown away.

From therexamples-1 have-given from, my own experience the question may

arise: was it on account of creative activities that the children were helped; or

was it due to special teacher-pupil relationship? The answer is: both. In the

framework of education that is being advocated in this book these two

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elements are inseparable, in education where spontaneous creative activities

are the basis of learning, the relationship between teacher and pupil must be

different from that of the current systems. It. will be a. relationship between

creator and creator not teacher and taught. One is more experienced and the

other just beginning to gain experience, and is looking for a sympathetic

response.

What is needed is a true dialogue in which both are equal partners. The

teacher should enter into the dialogue without any hesitation, and to ask the

partner—the pupil—such hard questions of which he himself does, not have the

answer. And the pupil will answer on the basis of his experience and opinion.

The teacher will answer the questions put by the pupil, from the deepest level

of his experience. Creative activities cannot be spontaneous without such a

relationship. Nor can such relationship be created in an education which is

divisive—between individual and individual and between human beings and

nature—and therefore is deadly.

When I say that creative activities should be the basis of education, I mean

exactly that. It is not a plan to devote an hour or two for 'artistic activities' or

'cultural activities' as they are called. It is not entertainment or a period for

relaxation or any such thing. The thesis presented here is a proposal to change

the entire approach to education. It is a proposal to reconstruct our

educational systems, and by design and implication, the outlook on the

processes of human development. It is a way to liberate education from its

present hierarchical pattern, in which intellect and rationality enjoy supreme

importance, and those values and behaviours which enhance the spirit of

caring, cooperation and social responsibility, are either totally ignored or given

minor position. Art, as the most meaningful creative labour, is not to be an

extra curriculum activity, or even a compulsory subject in the curriculum. It

has to be the centre of education.

Needless to say that what is generally understood by art today is not what art

is referred to be here. Art "today", wrote Herbert Read, "is too often a

wayward, partial, even perverse expression of universal harmony. It is too

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often but an expression of personal phantasies, of egoistic and aggressive

impulses. It is prostituted to purposes which destroy its aesthetic nature."85 In

other words, the whole conception of art has to be purified and expanded. This

is not the occasion to go into that discussion.

The idea here is to experience and develop the unity in which the child is born,

by learning from nature, and in the process of creation, all the necessary

information and knowledge is gathered. After all creative activities are related

to the external world. To make an efficient table, a pot or a house it is

necessary to know arithmetic, even history and geography. There is no subject

physical or philosophical which is not correlated to or is separate from the

unity and harmony we have been talking about. The natural way to acquire

that knowledge is through the unconscious discipline that is possible only by

aesthetic activities described here. It is this procedure that makes education

an unconscious process, therefore natural.

Let nobody jump to the conclusion that I expect that once creative activities

become the centre of education a world without war will come into being and

a new lifestyle will emerge. I am suggesting no such thing. What I wish to

convey is this: to abolish war it is essential that men and women must be

predisposed to peace, i.e., free and courageous enough to choose the path of

love and unity with all human beings, instead of the path of hatred and

fragmentation of human society.

And to do that, the first and foremost task before us is to start here and now a

campaign and a programme to revolutionize education and the methods of

bringing up children, along with convincing the peace movements and their

associated groups and organisations that the present education is harmful and

the sooner it can be transformed the greater the chances will be for them to

succeed in bringing peace on earth.

I am asking no more than what Maria Montessori had suggested in her message

to the International Congress against war and militarism which was held in

Paris in the month of August, 1937: "If at some times the Child were to receive

proper consideration and his immense possibilities were to be developed, then

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a Man might arise for whom there would be no need of encouragement to

disarmament and resistance to war because his nature would be such that he

could not endure the state of degradation and of extreme moral corruption

which makes possible any participation in war."

Montessori did not explain in her message how she thought we can get to that

goal. Her educational system is not the answer, nevertheless, we know of her

tremendous faith in human potential and that she considered the early years of

one's life to be of great importance for the development of inclination towards

peace and justice. In her message she is asking the anti-militarist, anti-war

movement to reflect and discover the "immense possibilities" of the child so

that in adult life he or she will be predisposed to peace. What I have tried to

convey here is that the path to that kind of development is of aesthetic

discipline—the path of art, of creative activities.

I am aware of the likelihood of being accused of minimising the need and

importance of peace education as it has been described in the first part of this

book. I am not in the least suggesting that that work should be abandoned in

favour of working for the proposed educational revolution. Quite the contrary.

I am actually convinced that the approach and proposal I am making, if

accepted and a beginning is made to implement it, the hard and dedicated

work that thousands of our brothers and sisters have done in the past decades

and many more doing so today will come to fruition sooner than we can

imagine. On the other hand, I am afraid that without changes such as proposed

above, the success of the peace education movement as well as the work of

the anti-war movement will be too slow and its work ineffective as far as

abolishing war and bringing peace on earth in concerned.

To put it in Gandhian terms, in fact, it is satyagraha— living with truth—that we

have to go to. Satyagraha is generally understood to be the equivalent of civil

disobedience, which is a distorted or a very limited view. Satyagraha is the dis-

covery of truth (and harmony) and living with it in its fullest sense, come what

may. Education within the framework of satyagraha is the process involved in

that kind of living during all stages of one's life and the life of the community.

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In satyagraha, nonviolent direct action, civil disobedience and other similar

methods of resistance are resorted to only when absolutely assential. But at

the same time, a person who lives an honestly truthful life, would never be

able to run away from a situation that might be in need of such an action, for,

his or her conscience would compel him or her to do something to mend

matters. Gandhi once said: "... It is not enough not to want to hurt or take the

life of your enemy. You are no Satyagrahi if you remain silent or passive

spectators while your enemy is being done to death. You must protect him

even at the cost of your life. If thousands in India learnt that art, the face of

India would be changed and no one would be able to point his finger of scorn at

her nonviolence as being a cloak of weakness."86

A glimpse of such an educational system, the individual, social and moral

foundations of which have been briefly described above, can be had from the

educational philosophy of Gandhi in the form of Nai Talim (new education).

Before starting the experiment in Sevagram, he wrote: "...By education I mean

an all-round drawing out the best in child and man— body, mind and spirit...I

would therefore begin the child's education by teaching it a useful handicraft

and enabling it to produce from the moment it begins its training...I hold that

the highest development of the mind and the soul is possible under such a

system of education. Only every handicraft has to be taught not merely

mechanically as is done today but scientifically, i.e., the child ^should know

the why and wherefore of every process."87

In this system the following three [arts were considered as centres of

education: the art of creating things involving manual labour; the art of living

cooperatively, which envisaged the school as a living community; and the art of

being one with nature. The plan for each of these learning processes should be

prepared as a starting point, but the actual educational programme is to be

planned by the community as whole and its concerned sections as needed at

the given time. In other words scheme is not to be imposed from top or outside

the day to-day social and technical needs are the factors which dictate the

contents of the programme. The individual's needs are not limited only to his

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or her own personal developments, but as a part of the life of the community.

The social needs are defined in the context of the society at large.

Similarly, the relationship between the individual and the community on the

one hand and nature on the other should have the perspective according to

which the whole universe is a family. The idea that the human race is there to

enjoy the riches of nature, and if necessary to exploit it in the pursuit of that

objective, was totally rejected. We are here to be part of it and not as its

masters.

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CONCLUSION

The task of building a peaceful and a warless world is a twin programme. The

first is the task to redefine our educational needs, work out a practical

programme, inject this perspective into all our activities and aspects of life,

and the second is to go on nonviolently resisting the evil .that war is and its

preparation—indirect or direct. It is a programme for learning the art of

Satyagraha, with its two essential aspects—constructive work and resistance to

evil. It is a plan to build a new civilization— civilization of nonviolence.

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REFERENCES

1. Andrew Wilson, The Disarmer's Handbook, Penguin Books, London 1983, p. 170-82

2. Theo. F. Lentz, Towards a Science of Peace, Bookman Associates Inc., New York,

1955, Foreword by Julian Huxley, p. v

3. Ibid, p. xiii

4. Ibid, p. 102

5. Ibid, p. 194

6. Ibid, p. 103-4

7. Training in Nonviolence, War Resisters* International, London, Spring 1968—Spring

1973

8. Theodore Olson and Lynne Shivers, Training for Nonviolent Action, War Resisters'

International, London, p. 3

9. Coovers, Deacon, Esser and Moore, The Resource Manual for Living Revolution,

Movement for a New Society, Philadelphia, 1978, p. 8

10. Alternative to Violence—Training Manual, Alternative to Violence Programme, New

York, Part II

11. Ibid, Pt. II A of 3

12. P. Rogers, M. Dando, and P. van den Dungen, As Lambs to the Slaughter, Arrow Books

London, 1981, p. 16

13. Ibid, p. 13

14. Ibid, p. 15

15. Andrew Wilson, The Disarmer's Handbook-of Military Technology and Organization,

Penguin Books, London, 1983, p. 9

16. Ibid, p. 308

17. Protect and Survive, Her Majesty's Stationary Office, London, 1980

18. E.P. Thompson, Protest and Survive, C.N.D., London, 1980, p. 6

19. Ibid, p. 10

20. Ibid, p. 10

21. Ibid, p. 13

22. Ibid, p. 15

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23. Ibid, p. 27

24. Ibid, p. 30

25. Peter Goodwin, Nuclear War: The Facts, Papermac, London, 1981

26. Ibid, p. 72

27. Peter Watkins, The War Game, Andre Deutch, London, 1967

28. Journal of the Medical Association for Prevention of War, London, Vol 3 Pt. 11, April

1984, p. 582-3

29. The Medical Effects of Nuclear War, The Report of the British Medical Association's

Board of Science and Education, John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, 1983, p. x-xi

30. Ibid, p. 120-24

31. The Guardian, London, July 8, 1983

32. Leo Tolstoy, The Kingdom of God and Peace Essays, The World's Classics, Oxford

University Press, London, 1951, p. 583-91

33. Devi Prasad and Tony Smythe, Conscription—a world survey, War Resisters'

International, London, 1968, p. 58

34. Ibid, p. x

35. Bart de Ligt. Introduction to the Science of Peace, Peace Academy and Peace Pledge

Union, London, 1939, p. 12-14

36. Ibid. p. 15-6

37. Alice Cook and Gwyn Kirk, Greenham Women Everywhere, Pluto Press, London, 1984,

p. 5

38. Ibid, p. 29

39. J.C. Kumarappa, Economy of Permanence, A.B. Sarva Seva Sangh, Kashi, 1958, p. 3

40. Ibid, p. 3-4

41. Ibid, p. 12

42. The State of India's Environment, A Citizen's Report, Centre for Science and

Environment, New Delhi, 1982, p. 17

43. Ibid, Chapter on Forests

44. The Times, London, May 21, 1974,

45. Shyam Bhatia, India's Nuclear Bomb, Vikas Publishing House, Ghaziabad, India, 1979,

p. 104

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Peace Education or Education for Peace

46. Indian Express, July 18, 1984

47. The Guardian, London, January 17, 1980

48. The Times, London, October 8, 1974

49. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Reactor Safety Study: An Assessment of

Accident Risks in U.S., Commercial Nuclear Power Plants, WASH-1400, October, 1975

50. The Risks of Nuclear Power Reactors, A review of the NRC Reactor Safety Study,

WASH-1400, Union of Concerned Scientists, Cambridge, USA, p. xi

51. Ibid, p. 131-39

52. The Guardian, London, July 4, 1979

53. The Observer, London, December 23, 1979

54. The Guardian, London, February 25, 1983

55. Paul Rowntree, National Society—Anti-Nuclear Campaign, Sheffield, in The Guardian,

London, April 8, 1983

56. A-bomb Survey Row, The Observer, London, October 2,1983

57. The Guardian, London, April 8,1983

58. The Guardian, London, September 28,1983

59. Peace News, Nottingham, U.K., May 11,1984

60. The Guardian, May 25,1981

61. Nicholas Humphrey, Four Minutes to Midnight, The Bronowski Memorial Lecture,

October 23, 1983, The British Broadcasting Corporation, London, 1983, p. 3

62. Devi Prasad and Tony Smythe, (see ref. no. 33) p.3

63. Azid ibn Muhammad al Nasafi (7-8 century) quoted by E.F. Schumacher in A Guide for

the Perplexed, p. 78

64. World Armament and Disarmament, Year Book 1978, SIPRI, Stockholm, p. 320

65. Cook and Kirk, (see ref. no. 37). p. 11

66. James Drevor, A Dictionary of Psychology, Penguin Reference Books, London, 1966

67. Nicholas Humphrey, (see ref. no. 61), p. 3-4

68. Herbert Read, Education for Peace, Routlege and Kegan Paul, London 1950, p. 49

69. Jean Piaget, The Moral Judgement of the Child, The Free Press, New York, 1965, p.

335

70. Erich Fromm, The Heart of Man, Harper and Row Publishers, New York, 1964, p. 117

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71. Ibid, p. 118

72. Ibid, p. 132-3

73. Charles Rycroft, A Critical Dictionary of Psychoanalysis, Penguin Reference Books,

London, 1972

74. Herbert Read, (see ref. no. 68), p. 40-1

75. Erich Fromm, (see ref. no. 70), p. 23

76. Ibid, p. 138

77. Herbert Read, (see ref. no. 68), p. 4

78. Amiya Chakravarty (ed.), A Tagore Reader, Beacon Press, Boston, 1971, p. 218-19

79. Ibid, p. 289

80. Herbert Read, Education Through Art, Faber and Faber, London, 1967, p. 8

81. Plato, The Republic, Translation by Desmond Lee, Penguin Books, 1980, p. 163

82. Herbert Read, (see ref. no. 68) p. 119

83. Coomaraswamy, Quoted by Roger Lipsey in Coomaraswamy-Vol 1, Selected Papers,

Princeton University Press, New Jersey, 1977, p. 309

84. Plato, (see ref. no. 81), p. 162

85. Herbert Read, (see ref. no. 68), p. 71

86. Gandhi, Satyagraha—the art of living, Harijan, March 24, 1946

87. Gandhi, Harijan, July 31, 1937

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Peace Education or Education for Peace

APPENDICES

1. bibliography

Alternatives to Violence Training Manual, Alternatives to Violence

Programme, New York

Arms Control: A Survey and Appraisal of Multilateral Agreements,. Stockholm

International Peace Research Institute, Taylor & Francis London,1978

Barnaby, F., and Huisken R., Arms Uncontrolled. Stockholm International

Peace Research, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1975

Bertram, C. (ed.), New Conventional Weapons and East-West Security.

International Institute of Strategic Studies, Macmillan, London, 1978

Bhatia, S., India's Nuclear Bomb, Vikas Publishing House, Ghaziabad, India,

1979

Bolsover, P., Civil Defence—The Cruellest Confidence Trick. Campaign for

Nuclear Disarmament, 1980

Bonds, R. (ed.), The US War Machine. Hamlyn, London, 1980 Bondurant, Joan

V., Conquest of Violence: The Gandhian Philosophy of Conflict. Princeton

University Press, New Jersey, 1958

Burns, R.D., SALT, Nuclear Proliferation and Nuclear-Weapons-Free Zones.

Centre for Study of Armament and Disarmament, California State University,

1979

Bose, N.K., Selections from Gandhi. Navajivan, Ahmedabad, 1948 Cook, A.,

and Kirk G., Greenham Women Everywhere. Pluto Press, London,1984

Coomaraswamy, quoted by Roger Lipsey in Coomaraswamy—Vol. 1, Selected

Papers. Princeton University Press, New Jersey, 1977 Cox, J., Overkill.

Penguin Books, London, 1981

Diwakar, R.R., Satyagraha: Its Technique and History. Hind Kitabs, Bombay,

1946

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Peace Education or Education for Peace

Defence Without the Bomb. The Report of the Alternative Defence

Commission Set up by the Lansbury House Trust Fund, Taylor and Francis Ltd.,

London, New York, 1983

Drevor, J., A Dictionary of Psychology. Penguin Reference Books, London,

1972

Earl Mountbatten, Lord Noel-Baker, and Lord Zuckerman, Apocalypse Now?

Spokesman Books, Nottingham, 1980

Eide, A., and Thee M., The Problems of Contemporary Militarism. Crook

Helm, London, 1980

Epstein, W., and Toyoda T. (eds.), A New Design for Nuclear Disarmament.

Spokesman Books, Nottingham, 1977

Fischer, L., The Life of Mahatma Gandhi. Harpers, New York, 1950

Fromm, E., The Heart of Man. Harper and Row Publishers, New York, 1964

Galbraith, J.K., How to Control the Military. Doubleday, New York, 1969

Gandhi, M.K., An Autobiography or The Story of My Experiments with Truth.

Navajivan Publishing House, Ahmedabad, 1956

—, Hind Swaraj or Indian Home Rule. Navjivan, Ahmedabad, 1958

---- , The Constructive Programme. Navajivan, Ahmedabad, 1941

--- , Satyagraha in South Africa. Translation from Gujarati by Valji Govindji

Desai, Revised second edition. Navajivan, Ahmedabad, 1950

----, The Problem of Education. Navajivan, Ahmedabad, 1962

---- , Sarvodaya. Navajivan Ahmedabad, 1954

---- , Educational Reconstruction. Hindustani Talimi Sangh, Sevagram, 1956

Gandhi Marg, Special Issue on Disarmament and Human Survival, May—June,

1982, Gandhi Peace Foundation, New Delhi

Glasstone, S., and Dolan P.J., The Effects of the Nuclear Weapons. 3rd

edition, US Department of Defence and Department of Energy, 1977

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Peace Education or Education for Peace

Gregg, R., The Power of Nonviolence. Second revised edition, Schoken, New

York, 1966

Griffiths, F., and Polanyi J.C., The Dangers of Nuclear War. University of

Toronto Press, 1980

Goodwin, P., Nuclear War. The Facts. Papermac, London, 1981

Gover, Deacon, Esser, and Moore, The Resource Manual for Living Revolution.

Movement for a New Society, Philadelphia, 1978

Home Office and Air Ministry, The Effects of the Atomic Bombs at Hiroshima

and Nagasaki. Report of the British Mission to Japan. HMSO, London, 1946

Humphrey, N., Four Minutes to Midnight. The Bronowski Memorial Lecture,

October 23, 1984, The British Brodcasting Corporation, London,1983

Huxley, A., Ends and Means : An Enquiry into the Methods Employed for their

Realization. Harper Brothers, New York, 1937

Japan Broadcasting Corporation (eds), Unforgettable Fire. Wildwood House,

London, 1981

Joliy, R. (ed.), Disarmament and World Development. Pergamon, London,

1979

Journal of Radiation Research, Supplement, 'A review of thirty years study of

Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bomb survivors.' Japan Radiation Research

Society, 1975

Jungk, R., Brighter than a Thousand Suns : The Story of the Men Who Made

the Bomb. Grove Press Black Cat Edition, New York

Kaldor, M., Smith D., and Vines S. (eds.), Democratic Socialism and the Cost

of Defence, Report by the Labour Party Defence Study Group, Crook Helm,

London, 1980

Kaldor, M., and Eide A. (eds.), The World Military Older : The Impact of

Military Technology on the Third World. Macmillan, London, 1979

King-Hall, Sir Stephen, Defence in the Nuclear Age. Gollancz, London, 1958

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Koestler, A., Reflections on Hanging. Macmillan, New York, 1967 Kumarappa,

J.C, Economy of Permanence. Serva Seva Sangh, Wardha, 1958

Lentz, T.F., Towards a Science of Peace. Bookman Associates Inc., New York,

1955

Ligt, Bart de, Introduction to the Science of Peace. Peace Acedemy and

Peace Pledge Union, London, 1939

Luttwak, E.A., A Dictionary of Modern War. Penguin Books, Hanmon- dsworth,

1971

Messelson, M., and Robinson J.P., Chemical Warfare and Chemical dis-

armament. Scientific American, April, 1980

Myrdal, A., The Game of Disarmament: How the US and Russia Run the Arms

Race. Pantheon, New York, 1976

Myrdal, A. et al., The Dynamics of European Nuclear Disarmament.

Spokesman University Paperbacks, 1981

Neild, R., How to Make Up About the Bomb. Andre Deutsch, London, 1981

Nuclear Weapons. HMSO, London, 1980

Oppenheimer, M. and Lakey G., A Manual for Direct Action. Quadrangle Books,

Chicago, 1965

Piaget, J., The Moral Judgment of the Child. The Free Press, New York, 1965

Plato, The Republic. Translation by Desmond Lee, Penguin Books, 1980

Prasad, D., and Smythe, T., Conscription, a World Survey. War Resis- ter's

International, London, 1968

Protect and Survive. HMSO, London, 1980.

Pyarelal, Mahatma Gandhi: The Last Phase, Vol. I and II. Navjivan,

Ahmedabad, 1956,

Read, H., Education Through Art. Faber & Faber, London, 1967,

Read. H., Education for Peace. Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1950.

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Roberts, A., Nations in Arms : The Theory and Practice of Tentorial Defence.

Praeger, New York, 1976

Roberts, A. (ed.), The Strategy of Civilian Defence: Non-Violent Resistance

to Aggression. Faber & Faber Ltd., 1967

Robinson, Julian Perry, The Efforts of Weapons on Ecosystems. Pergamon

Press, Oxford, 1979

Rogers, P., Dando, M., and P. Van den Dungen, As Lambs to the Slaughter.

Arrow Books, London, 1981

Sharma, D., India's Nuclear Estate, Lances Publishers, New Delhi, 1983

Sharp, G., The Political Equivalent of War—Civilian Defence, International

Conciliation, no. 555, New York, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace,

November, 1965

Shridharani, K., War Without Violence: A Study of Gandhi's Method and Its

Accomplishments. Harcourt, Brace, and Co., New York, 1939. Sibley, Mulford

Q., and Philip, E. Jacob, Conscription of Conscience: The American State and

the Conscientious Objector, 1940—1947. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 1952

Sibley, Mulford Q., (ed.), The Quiet Battle: Writings on the Theory and

Practice of Nonviolent Resistance, Anchor Books, Doubleday, New York, 1963

Sigmund, E., Rage Against the Dying, Pluto Press, London, 1980

Sims, N.A. Approaches to Disarmament. Quaker Peace Service, London,1979

Smith, D., The Defence of the Realm in the 1980s. Croom Helm, London,

1980

Tendulker, D.G. Mahatma: Life of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. Eight

Volumes. Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting,

Government of India, New Delhi, 1962

The Future of the British Nuclear Deterrent, A report to the British Council

on Christian Approaches to Defence and Disarmament. The Division of

International Affairs of the British Council of Churches, 1979.

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The Resource Manual for Living Revolution, Movement for a New Society,

Philadelphia, 1978

The Medical Effects of Nuclear War, The Report of the British Medical

Association Board of Science and Education. John Wiley & Sons Chichester,

1983

The United Nations and Disarmament, 1945—1970, Chapter 15, On Nuclear

Weapons Free Zones. Department of Political and Security Council Affairs,

United Nations, 1971

The United Nations and Disarmament, 1970—1975. Chapter 5, On Nuclear

Weapons Free Zones. Department of Political and Security Council Affairs,

United Nations, 1976

Theatre Nuclear Weapons: European Perspectives. Stockholm International

Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), Taylor & Francis, London. 1978

Thompson, E.P. and Smith, D., Protest and Survive, Penguin Books,

London,1980

Thoreau, H.D., " On the Duty of Civil Disobedience". Peace News, London,

1963

Tolstoy, L , The Kingdom of God and Peace Essays, The World's Classics.

Oxford University Press, London

Walker, C.C., Organizing for Nonviolent Direct Action, Cheney, Pennsylvania:

1961

Watkins, P., The War Game. Andre Deutch, London, 1967

Journal and Newsletters—a selected list

Arms Control, Frank Cass & Co, Gainsborough House, Gainsborough Road,

London Ell, U.K.

Bulletin of Peace proposals, Quarterly, Universitetsforlaget, Journals

Department, PO Box 2959, Toyen, Oslo 6, Norway

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Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Monthly, 1020—1024 East 58th Street,

Chicago 60637, U.S. A

The Defence Monitor. Monthly, Centre for Defense Information, 122 Maryland

Ave., Ne, Washington. DC 20002, U.S.A.

Disarmament Campaigns. Monthly. Postbus 18747, Anna Paulownaplein 3, 2502

ES The Hague, Netherlands

Gandhi Marg. Monthly, Gandhi Peace Foundation, 221—223 Deen Dayal

Upadhyaya Marg, New Delhi 110002, India

Peace News. Fortnightly, 8 Elm Avenue. Nottingham, U.K.

Philosophy and Social Action. Quarterly. M—120 Greater Kailash—1, New Delhi

110048, India

Proceedings of the Medical Association for Prevention of War. 57b Somerton

Road, London NW 2, U.K.

Sanity, Bi-monthly, C.N.D., 11 Goodwin Street, London N4 3HQ. U.K.

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2. peace organisations

—a selected list

The following is a short list of organisations whose main activity is either on pacifist lines

or only for disarmament. Some of them concentrate on only nuclear disarmament whilst

others on general and total disarmament. Many of them believe in the unilateral approach

while welcoming any worthwhile step taken towards disarmament by the multilateralists.

Some of them are oriented to total nonviolence and others only to tactical nonviolence

but all are against war. In formulating the list I surely have not been able to cover all of

the movements- due to my limited information. I may have included some who I knew to

be active at some time but are no longer so. I shall be grateful to readers who would take

the trouble of sending up-to-date information on groups they know to be active in their

areas. The best thing to do will be to send such information to the Peace News Peace

Diary which is the major source today on this subject. The Diary contains addresses,

telephone numbers and other information on more than one thousand groups in nearly 120

countries and various kinds of movements connected with peace. Its address is Peace

News World Diary, 5 Caledonian Road, London N. 1, U.K.

INTERNATIONAL

Christian Peace Conference, Jungmannova, 9, 111 21 Prague 1, Czechoslovakia.

European Nuclear Disarmament Campaign, 227 Seven Sisters Road, London N 4, U.K.

Friends of The Earth, 337 City Road, London EC 1, U.K.

International Collective Resistance, 35 Van Elewyckstraat, 1050 Bruxeiles, Beigium.

International Fellowship of Reconciliation, Hof van Sonoy, 15-17, 1811 LD Alkmaar,

Netherlands.

International Peace Academy, 777 United Nations Plaza, New York, N.Y. 10017, U.S.A.

International Peace Research Association, Faculty of Law, University of Tokyo,

Bunkoyoku, Japan.

Pax Christ! International, Kerkstr. 150, 2000 Antwerpen, Belgium.

Peace Brigades International, 4722 Baltimore Avenue, Suite 2, Philadelphia, Pa 19143,

U.S.A.

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Quaker Council for European Affairs, 28 av de la Brabanconne, B-1040 Bruxelles,

Belgium.

Servicio Paz Justicia, Casa de la Paz, Mexico 479, 1097 Buenos Aires, Argentine.

War Resisters' International, 55 Dawes Street, London SE 17, U.K.

Women's International League for Peace and Freedom, 1 rue de Varemba 1211 Geneva,

Switzerland.

World Conference on Religion and Peace, 777 United Nations Plaza, New York, NY

10017, U.S.A.

AUSTRALIA

Association for International Cooperation and Disarmament and Australian Liaison

Peace Committee, POB A243, Sydney South, NSW 2000.

Campaign Against Nuclear Energy, 310 Angas St., Adelaide 5000, SA. Campaign Against

Nuclear Power, POB 238 N. Quay, Brisbane 4000, Qld.

Friends of Earth, 366 Smith St., Collingwood 3066.

Peace Pledge Union, 6 Coolibah Avenue, Kensington Gardens, SA.

AUSTRIA

International Atomic Energy Agency, Kaerntnerring 11, A-1010 Vienna.

Religiose Geselschaft Der Freunde, Juaressgasse 13, A—1030 Vienna.

BELGIUM

International des Resistants a la Guerre, rue van Elewyck 35, 1050 Bruxelles.

Internationale van Oorlogstegenstanders, rue van Elewyck 35, 1050 Bruxelles.

World Information Service on Energy, 22 rue de Toulouse, 1040— Bruxelles.

CANADA

Canadian Coalition for Nuclear Responsibility, 2010 Mackay St., Montreal, Quebec.

Greenpeace, 2108 W 4th. Avenue, Vancouver, BC.

Peace Research Institute, 119 Thomas St., Oakville, Ontario L6j 3A7.

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Project Ploughshares, Institute for Peace and Conflict Studies, Conrad Grebel College,

Waterloo, Ontario N21 3G6.

Union de Pacifistes du Quebec, 1264 rue St. Timothee, Montreal H2L 3N6.

DENMARK

Aldrig Mere Krig, Thorsgade 79, 2200 Kopenhagen N.

Arhus Peace Centre, Vester Alles Kasernebigning opg. 3-5, 8000 Arhus. FINLAND

Finnish Peace Research Association, C/o Dept. of Political Science, Box 607, 33101

Tampere 10.

Union of Conscientious Objectors, Sahkottajankatu 6, 00520 Helsinki 52.

FRANCE

Communaute de L'Arche, La Borie Noble, 34260 La Bousquet D'Orb.

Mouvement Pour une Alternative Non-violence, 20 rue Devide, 45200 Montargis.

Union Pacifiste de France, 4 rue Lazare Hoche, 92100 Boulogne sur Seine.

GERMAN FEDERAL REPUBLIC

Deutsche Friedensgesellschaft-Internationale der Kriegsdiensteegner, Jungfrauenthal

37, 2000 Hamburg 13.

Deutsche Friedensgesellschaft Vereingte Kriegsdientstgegner, 4300 Essen 11

Relinghauserstr 214.

Graswurzelrevolution, Steinbruchweg 14, 3500 Kassel-Bettenhausen.

Greenpeace Deutschland, Hohe Bruecke 1,2000 Hamburg 11.

Die Gruenen, Friedrich-Ebert-Allee 120, 5300 Bonne 1.

Societas Populurum Progressio, Hergensroderstr 15, 6050 Offenbach.

GREAT BRITAIN

Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation, 45 Gamble Street, Nottingham NG74ET.

Campaign Against Arms Trade, 5 Caledonian Road, London N1.

Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, 11 Goodwin Street, London N4 3HQ.

European Nuclear Disarmament, 227 Seven Sisters Road, London N4 2DA.

www.mkgandhi.org

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Peace Education or Education for Peace

Fellowship of Reconciliation, 9 Coombe Road, New Maiden, Surrey KT3 4QA.

Journalists Against Nuclear Extermination, C/o Magazine Branch, National Union of

Journalists, 314 Gray's Inn Road, London WC 1.

Medical Association for Prevention of War, 238 Camden Road, London NW 1.

Medical Campaign Against Nuclear Weapons, 5/15 Tenison Road, Cambridge.

Peace Pledge Union, 6 Endsleigh St. London WC 1.

Quaker Peace Service, Friends House, Euston Road, London NW 1.

Scientists Against Nuclear Arms, 112 Newport Road, near Brad well, Milton Keynes,

Bucks.

ISRAEL

International Movement of Conscientious War Resisters, POB 28068, 61280 Tel Aviv-

Jaffa.

World Disarmament Campaign, 3 Elizer Rivlin St., Jerusalem.

INDIA

Bharatiya Shanti Sena, Paunar Ashram, Paunar, Dist: Wardha. Centre for Science and

Environment, Vishal Bhavan Nehru Place, New Delhi.

Gandhi Peace Foundation, 221-3 Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Marg, New Delhi 110002.

Indian Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, C/o Gandhi Memorial Committee, 59 B

Chowringhee Road, Calcutta-700020.

Sampoorna Kranti Vidyalaya, Vedchhi 394641, Gujrat.

Sarva Seva Sangh, Rajghat, Varanasi 221001.

Sarvodaya Press Service, 128 Tilak Road, Indore, MP 452004.

ITALY

Lega Degli Objettori di Conscienza, Via G.B. Vico 20, Roma 00196.

Movemento Internazionale Delle Riconciliazione, via della Alpi 20, Roma 00198.

Movimento Nonviolento, Via Villaggio, S. Livia 103, 06100 Perugia.

Partito Radicale, via di Torre Argentine 18, 00186 Roma.

www.mkgandhi.org

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Peace Education or Education for Peace

JAPAN

Gensuikyo, (Council Against A & H Bombs), 6-19-23 Shimbashi Minato- ku, Tokyo 105.

Japan Congress Against A & H Bombs, 4th Floor, Akimoto Building, 2-19 Tsukasa-cho

Kanda, Chiyodo-ku, Tokyo.

Nipponzan Myohoji, (Japan Buddha Sangh), 7-8 Shinsen-cho, Shibu a-ku, Tokyo.

Peace Studies Association of Japan, Shikoku Gakum University, 765 Zentsuji-shi, Kagawa

Ken.

MALAYSIA

Sahabat Alam, 7 Cantonment Road, Penang.

MEXICO

Amigo de la Tierra, Apt. Postale 269, Cuernavaca, Lorelos.

NETHERLANDS

Centrum voor Geweldloze Weerbaarheid, Leliegracht 54, 1015 DJ Amsterdam.

Kerk en Vrede, Utrechtseweg 159, 3818 ED Amersfoort,

Stop the Neutron Bomb/Nuclear Arms Race, Lauriergracht 13, 1016 RD, Amsterdam.

NEW ZEALAND

Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, POB 5890, 121 Sumonds Street, Auckland.

Christian Pacifist Society, 29 McGregors Ave. Christchurch 6. Greenpeace (NZ) Inc.,

Private Bag, Wellesley Street, W. Auckland 1. NORWAY

Fo1reisning Mot Krig, Goteborggt 8, Oslo 5.

International Peace Research Institute, Radhusgaten 4, Oslo 1.

Aksion Mot Atomkraft, POB 8395, Schweigaardsgt 34, Hammersborg, Oslo I.

SINGAPORE

Quaker International Seminars in S.E. Asia, 54A Shrewsbury Road, Singapore 11.

SPAIN

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Peace Education or Education for Peace

Group for a Political Objection, C/o Virgili 97, 1 er la, Barcelona 30. MOC, Cenicientos 16

baos, Madrid 29.

School Day for Nonviolence and Peace, Calle Marbella 41, Local no. 10, playa de Pal ma,

Maliorca.

SRI LANKA

Nonviolent Direct Action Group, Vale Cinema Road, Chavakachcheri.

Sarvodaya Shramdana Sangamya, 98 Rawatawate Road, Moratuwa.

SWEDEN

Kampanjen Mot Verneplikr, Lyngakravagen 29, 310 40 Harplinge.

Kristna Fredsroreisen, Linnegatan 16, 753 32 Uppsala.

Stockholm Peace Research Institute, (SIPRI), Bergshamra, S-17173 Solna.

Sveriges Fredsrad, Kungsgatan 55, 111 22 Stockholm.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Buddhist Peace Fellowship, POB 805, Mokawao, Hi 96768.

Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 345 East 46th Street, New York, NY 10017.

Catholic Peace Fellowship, 339 Lafayette Street, New York, NY 10012.

Centre for Conflict Resolution, 731 State Street, Madison. Wi 53703.

Centre for Peaceful Change, Stopher Hall, Kent State University, Kent, Oh 44242.

Fellowship of Reconciliation, Box 271, Nyack, NY 10960.

Friends Peace Committee, 1515 Cherry Street, Philadelphia, Pa 19102.

Humanitas International, POB 818, Menlo Park, Ca 94025.

Jewish Peace Fellowship, Box 271, Nyack, NY 10960.

Mennonite Central Committee Peace Section, 21 South 12th Street, Akron, Pa 17501.

Movement for a New Society, Baltimore Are., Philadelphia, Pa. 19143

Pax Christi, 6337 W, Cornelia Avenue, Chicago, 111 60634.

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Page 135

Document Outline

- Peace Education or Education for Peace

- CONTENTS

- ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

- FOREWORD

- INTRODUCTION

- PART ONE: PEACE EDUCATION —an overview

- 1 Peace Research

- 18 training for peace and nonviolence: resource material

- 2.1 training manuals

- 2.2 handbooks and other publications

- 2.3 movement journals and newsletters

- 2.4 audio-visual material

- 3. peace education and the popular press

- 4. peace groups of professionals

- 5. the united nations and disarmament

- 6. pacifist and nonviolent movements

- 6.1. pacifist movements and the growth of anti-militarism

- 6.2. anti-nuclear movement

- 6.3 nonviolent movement in India

- 7. peace and the environment

- 8. peace and nuclear energy

- SUMMARY OF PART ONE

- PART TWO: EDUCATION FOR PEACE —a thesis

- CONCLUSION

- REFERENCES

- APPENDICES

- 1. bibliography

- 2. peace organisations

Table of Contents

Peace Education or Education for Peace

CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

FOREWORD

INTRODUCTION

PART ONE: PEACE EDUCATION —an overview

1 Peace Research

18 training for peace and nonviolence: resource material

2.1 training manuals

2.2 handbooks and other publications

2.3 movement journals and newsletters

2.4 audio-visual material

2.1 training manuals

2.2 handbooks and other publications

2.3 movement journals and newsletters

2.4 audio-visual material

3. peace education and the popular press

4. peace groups of professionals

5. the united nations and disarmament

6. pacifist and nonviolent movements

6.1. pacifist movements and the growth of anti-militarism

6.2. anti-nuclear movement

6.3 nonviolent movement in India

6.1. pacifist movements and the growth of anti-militarism

6.2. anti-nuclear movement

6.3 nonviolent movement in India

7. peace and the environment

8. peace and nuclear energy

SUMMARY OF PART ONE

1 Peace Research

18 training for peace and nonviolence: resource material

2.1 training manuals

2.2 handbooks and other publications

2.3 movement journals and newsletters

2.4 audio-visual material

2.1 training manuals

2.2 handbooks and other publications

2.3 movement journals and newsletters

2.4 audio-visual material

3. peace education and the popular press

4. peace groups of professionals

5. the united nations and disarmament

6. pacifist and nonviolent movements

6.1. pacifist movements and the growth of anti-militarism

6.2. anti-nuclear movement

6.3 nonviolent movement in India

6.1. pacifist movements and the growth of anti-militarism

6.2. anti-nuclear movement

6.3 nonviolent movement in India

7. peace and the environment

8. peace and nuclear energy

SUMMARY OF PART ONE

PART TWO: EDUCATION FOR PEACE —a thesis

CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

APPENDICES

1. bibliography

2. peace organisations

1. bibliography

2. peace organisations

CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

FOREWORD

INTRODUCTION

PART ONE: PEACE EDUCATION —an overview

1 Peace Research

18 training for peace and nonviolence: resource material

2.1 training manuals

2.2 handbooks and other publications

2.3 movement journals and newsletters

2.4 audio-visual material

2.1 training manuals

2.2 handbooks and other publications

2.3 movement journals and newsletters

2.4 audio-visual material

3. peace education and the popular press

4. peace groups of professionals

5. the united nations and disarmament

6. pacifist and nonviolent movements

6.1. pacifist movements and the growth of anti-militarism

6.2. anti-nuclear movement

6.3 nonviolent movement in India

6.1. pacifist movements and the growth of anti-militarism

6.2. anti-nuclear movement

6.3 nonviolent movement in India

7. peace and the environment

8. peace and nuclear energy

SUMMARY OF PART ONE

1 Peace Research

18 training for peace and nonviolence: resource material

2.1 training manuals

2.2 handbooks and other publications

2.3 movement journals and newsletters

2.4 audio-visual material

2.1 training manuals

2.2 handbooks and other publications

2.3 movement journals and newsletters

2.4 audio-visual material

3. peace education and the popular press

4. peace groups of professionals

5. the united nations and disarmament

6. pacifist and nonviolent movements

6.1. pacifist movements and the growth of anti-militarism

6.2. anti-nuclear movement

6.3 nonviolent movement in India

6.1. pacifist movements and the growth of anti-militarism

6.2. anti-nuclear movement

6.3 nonviolent movement in India

7. peace and the environment

8. peace and nuclear energy

SUMMARY OF PART ONE

PART TWO: EDUCATION FOR PEACE —a thesis

CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

APPENDICES

1. bibliography

2. peace organisations

1. bibliography

2. peace organisations