Resolution of Economic Conflicts: A Gandhian Perspective

- By B Sambasiva Prasad

Abstract

The aim of this paper is to discuss the causes of economic conflicts and expound the method of resolving them on Gandhian lines. At the outset, the definition and types of conflicts are given. The reasons for economic conflicts are then analysed. Gandhian conception of economics and its difference from modern economics is explained. Gandhi's principles for resolving economic conflicts are listed and discussed. It is argued that economic conflicts could be resolved only when there is a change from "Economic Man" to "Gandhian Man". Man has to shed his egoism and cultivate altruism. There must be a continuous expansion of his higher self (Self) and shrinking of small self (ego). Unless such an expansion of Self takes place, and unless a change from Economic Man to Gandhian Man comes about, economic conflicts will remain unresolved.

Introduction

IN COLLINS ENGLISH DICTIONARY, 'conflict' is defined as a serious disagreement and argument about something important. It is also defined as a state of mind in which one finds it impossible to make a decision.

Conflicts are of different kinds. There may be conflicts among individuals or groups or nations. Some times conflict may arise within the individual himself. In Mahabharata, Duryodhana was confronted with an internal conflict between right and wrong. He proclaimed "Na jamidharmam, nachmepravrittihi; najamiadharmam, nachemenivritthi" - I know what is dharma, but I am unable to do it; I also know what is adharma, but I am unable to desist from it.

From another perspective, conflicts at social level may be classified as political, economic, structural, religious and cultural. When two or more parties differ in their political standpoint, conflict arises between these two or more groups. The differences between various political parities of today's India and changing of political leaders from one party to the other reflect political conflicts. The conflict between the rich and the poor, is an instance of economic conflict. The conflicts between people of different castes or community and dominating one over the other is an instance of structural conflict. The differences between different religious faiths and practices may generate religious conflicts. Similarly, differences among cultural groups may generate cultural conflicts. Thus, conflicts are of different kinds. Most of them arise in view of economic interests. These conflicts generate violence. Like conflicts, violence is of different types - political violence, religious violence, structural violence, cultural violence and so on. Therefore, conflicts must be contained in order to build up peace in society. Mahatma Gandhi wanted to bridge conflicts through his technique of non-violence. The two principles that he advocated for conflict resolution are truth (satya) and nonviolence (ahimsa), which are integrally related. His ideal of conflict resolution "emphasizes an arrival at truth, rather than at victory."2 Gandhi wanted to be led by the "inner voice" to resolve individual as well as social conflicts. He wanted to realize Truth in order to resolve conflicts. One could reach Truth, through the practice of nonviolence. For him Truth is the "end" and non-violence is the "means". This paper is confined to economic conflicts. It aims at discussing the causes of economic conflicts and expound the method of resolving them on Gandhian lines.

Economic Conflicts: Their Causes

Economic conflicts arise when the gap between the rich and the poor gets widened; when the rich exploit the poor; when the rich procure more goods and services and consume much more than the poor; when the landlords, the mill-owners and moneyed men aim at huge profits at the cost of the welfare of their workers; when the peasants are levied heavy taxes by the government in spite of poor crop as in the case of British rule in India; when the town dwellers exploit the villagers; when one ignores economic neighbourhood. This list may go further.

In the context of economic conflicts, the rich enjoy the luxuries of life while the poor suffer for want of basic needs of life. This leads to conflict between them. It is a dialectical process. How to resolve this dialectic? In Gandhian philosophy, such dialectics could be resolved and a synthesis could be arrived. "Whether it is politics or philosophy, ethics or economics, conflict resolution or human development, the three-way starting point for Gandhi is to understand the actual, cherish the ideal, and bring about a synthesis of the two in practice. In political action, the dialectic is between the ends sought and the means used. In ethics, it is the conflict between personal happiness and the common good. In human development, it is the opposition between animal instincts and spiritual aspirations. In conflict resolution, it is the reconciliation of the two conflicting claims. ... His method and philosophy go beyond the common logic where opposites contradict each other. Instead, we find in Gandhi coexistence of contraries."3

Resolution of Economic Conflicts: Gandhian Model

In order to understand the Gandhian method of resolving economic conflicts, one must understand Gandhian views on economics.

Gandhian economics is different from modern economics. While modern economics aims at mass production, maximum possible profits and accumulation of wealth, Gandhian economics aims at production by the masses and the welfare of the common man. It is human being and his welfare that constitute the centrality of Gandhian economics. While modern economics promotes "economic man" who aims at huge profits by purchasing at cheap market and sells it in dear market, Gandhian economics endorses "Gandhian man" who follows the principle of swadeshi and cares for the welfare of his neighbour. Modern economics aims at maximum happiness of the maximum number. However, Gandhian economics aims at "sarvodaya" the welfare of all. Gandhi never demarcated between economics, politics, religion, education of man. For him they constitute an integral whole. They are woven round the two basic principles of satya and ahimsa.

Gandhi had suggested several principles to be followed in resolving economic conflicts. They may be broadly covered under the following subjects.

(1) Aparigraha, (2) Bread labour, (3) Swadeshi, (4) Economic decentralisation, (5) Economic Equality, (6) Trusteeship, (7) Sarvodaya, (8) Sustainable Development.

Let us discuss them briefly.

1. Aparigraha

Aparigraha is non-possession. In Gandhian economics, it is need-based economy. Gandhi said that the secret of happiness lies in renunciation "Renunciation is life. Indulgence spells death".4 The point of Gandhi is that one should not possess more than one's needs. According to him, possessing more than one's needs is a kind of theft. He opined that people procure more goods out of their greed. This leads to unjustified distribution of goods, widening the gap between the rich and the poor.

Gandhi said: "The rich have a superfluous store of things which they do not need…; while millions starve to death for want of sustenance. If each retained possession of only what he needed, no one would be in want and all would live in contentment." He added: "Civilization in the real sense of the term consists not in the multiplication, but in the deliberate and voluntary reduction of wants."5 In Gandhian economics, consumption is determined by need.

Gandhi makes a beautiful distinction between "needs", "wants" and "greed". He said that it is out of "greed" that man acquires large quantity of goods beyond his necessity. Man requires certain needs for his life like food, clothes and house to live in and hygienic life. However, the modern man multiplies his wants out of greed. Gandhi remarked that if man goes on multiplying his wants, there is no end to it. It goes on increasing. Like the sage Buddha, Gandhi remarked that the root cause of all suffering is multiplication of wants. Gandhi said that mind is a restless bird and the more it gets, it wants more and more. Therefore, one must control his mind and its wants, restricting to needs only. Thus, we find in Gandhian thought a remarkable distinction between "needs" and "wants". It is the human greed that increases wants. In short, Gandhi advocated "wantlessness". He wanted to lead a simple life with high thinking. He wanted man not only to confine to himself and his family and enjoy selfish life (egoism) , but one must care for his fellow being. He wanted man to see himself in others and others in himself. This is "altruism". Thus, Gandhian economics stresses upon the need for the transition of man from egoism to altruism. This requires "aparigraha", a need based economy.

Two other concepts that are integrally related to Gandhian notion of aprigraha are asteya and aswada. In fact Gandhi included them under his list of Eleven-Ashram-Vows, that which he prescribed for his ashramites.6

Asteya is the virtue of non-stealing. Stealing, Gandhi considered, is of two types - physical and mental. Stealing of the physical/ material goods is physical stealing. Even to think of possessing of others' goods is stealing. It is psychological stealing. According to Gandhi to possess material goods, more than one requires is a kind of stealing, because by doing this, one deprives others not to possess them.

Asvada or control of the palate is necessary for the practice of Brahmacharya. Gandhi said that one should eat to live, not live to eat. Food is meant only to sustain the body for service to others. This vow was adhered to rightly in Gandhi's Ashram. There the food was simple and was cooked in a common kitchen.

Another important principle that Gandhi suggested for the resolution of economic conflicts is 'bread labour'.

2. Bread Labour (Saririka Shrama)

According to Gandhi, one must physically do some work for his bread, because the needs of the body must be supplied by the body. He did not belittle the intellectual labour, but claims that any amount of intellectual labour cannot be equivalent to physical labour.

Initially, Gandhi means by bread labour the agricultural labour (the labour of the tiller of the soil). However, as farming is not possible for all persons, he recommended everybody to do some manual labour say in the form of spinning, weaving, cleaning toilets etc. Gandhi remarked that he learnt the notion of bread labour from Tolstoy. He said that labouring with one's own hand, was first stressed by the Russian writer T.M.Bondaref. However, it was Tolstoy that advertised it and gave it a wider publicity. Gandhi felt that the principle of bread labour is also found in the Bhagavadgita, where it is told that he who eats without offering sacrifice eats stolen food. Here the word "sacrifice" stands for bread labour.

Gandhi felt that if everybody practises bread labour, this would remove the misconception that the work of a cobbler is inferior to the work of a lawyer. One will realize that all professions are equally important for the holistic development of a society.

Economic conflicts, Gandhi believed, could be diminished if one practices the principle of swadeshi.

3. Swadeshi

"Swadeshi", Gandhi observed:

...is that spirit in us which restricts us to the use and service of our immediate surroundings to the exclusion of the more remote. Thus, as for religion, in order to satisfy the requirements of the definition, I must restrict myself to my ancestral religion. That is, the use of my immediate religious surrounding. If I find it defective, I should serve it by purging it of its defects.

In the domain of politics, I should make use of the indigenous institutions and serve them by curing them of their proved defects. In that of economics, I should use only things that are produced by my immediate neighbours and serve those industries by making them efficient and complete where they might be found wanting. .... 7

Swadeshi, a native movement that Gandhi had introduced, primarily aims at encouraging Khadi and other village industries. By practicing Swadeshi, Gandhi wanted every village should be selfsufficient. It should become independent of its own. In other words, every village should attain swaraj.

Swadeshi is economic neighbourhood. It respects and safeguards the interests of one's neighbours, rather than distant people. For instance, if I wear an imported shirt that would help a foreign merchant but makes my neighbour (village weaver) without a customer, thus leaving him in poverty and hunger. This was what Gandhi opposed. He wanted to develop the spirit of economic neighbourhood among people. He desired every Indian to practice it and apply to his life.

The principle of swadeshi, advocated by Gandhi, was not only relevant to the days of British India, but also to the contemporary times. Though we achieved political freedom from the British yoke, still we are under the grip of colonial syndrome (videshi mindset). We prefer imported goods at the cost of indigenous articles. That makes Indian market poor, leading to economic disparities and conflicts. Therefore, I feel that Gandhian principle of swadeshi is as much relevant today as it was relevant in his times.

Gandhi, though a votary of swadeshi, did not oppose international trade. He was not totally against importing foreign goods, if necessary. By advocating swadeshi, Gandhi means that a country must be self-reliant as far as food, cloth and other basic needs. However, goods which cannot be produced at home, and which are important from people's welfare point of view, may be imported. He remarked: " I have never been an advocate of prohibition of all things foreign because they are foreign."8 Gandhi added:

… Swadeshi, like any other good thing, can be ridden to death if it is made a fetish. That is a danger which must be guarded against. To reject foreign manufacturers merely because they are foreign, and to go on wasting national time and money in the promotion in one's country of manufactures for which it is not suited would be criminal folly and a negation of Swadeshi spirit. A true votary of Swadeshi will never harbour ill-will towards the foreigner; he will not be actuated by antagonism towards anybody on earth. Swadeshism is not a cult of hatred. It is a doctrine of selfless service, that has its roots in the purest ahimsa, i.e., Love. 9

Another principle, that Gandhi focused upon to resolve economic conflicts is "economic decentralization".

4. Economic Decentralisation

Gandhi said that India lives in villages and hence, the economic development of India must be built up from its grassroot level. Therefore, it is not centralized planning but decentralized planning must be necessary. This is the reason why, Gandhi tirelessly focused upon gram swaraj. He said that every village should be self-sufficient and self-reliant. Gandhi viewed that villagers were being exploited by the city dwellers. The villagers produce food, but they are starving without food, they produce milk from their cattle, but their children were deprived of milk. This grave condition of the villages, Gandhi wanted to change. He wanted every villager to have balanced diet, decent house to live in, proper education and medical facilities for their children. He wanted every village to become a village republic. While explaining his notion of village swaraj, Gandhi wrote:

My idea of village Swaraj is that it is a complete republic, independent of its neighbours for its own vital wants, and yet interdependent for many others in which dependence is a necessity. Thus every village's first concern will be to grow its own food crops and cotton for its cloth. It should have a reserve for its cattle, recreation and playground for adults and children. Then if there is more land available, it will grow useful money crops, thus excluding ganja, tobacco, opium and the like. The village will maintain a village theatre, school and pubic hall. It will have its own waterworks, ensuring clean water supply. This can be done through controlled wells or tanks. Education will be compulsory up to the final basic course. As far as possible every activity will be conducted on the co-operative basis. There will be no castes such as we have today with their graded untouchablity. Non-violence with its technique of satyagraha and non-cooperation will be the sanction of the village community. …The government of the village will be conducted by a Panchayat of five persons annually elected by the adult villagers, male and female, possessing minimum prescribed qualifications. ...10

In 1946, Gandhi wrote:

In this structure composed of innumerable villages, there will be ever widening, never ascending circles. Life will not be a pyramid with the apex sustained by the bottom. But it will be an oceanic circle whose centre will be the individual always ready to perish for the village, the latter ready to perish for the circle of villages, till at last the whole becomes one life composed of individuals, never aggressive in their arrogance but ever humble, sharing the majesty of the oceanic circle of which they are integral units.11

In order to make a village, self-sufficient Gandhi not only wanted to encourage khadi but also all village industries like hand-grinding, hand pounding, hand-chakkis, soap making, paper-making, matchmaking, tanning, oil pressing, sandal making etc. Gandhi argued that hand-pounding of rice or hand-chakkis for husking paddy is good because it is a well established fact that white polished rice put by mills is unhealthy.

Another principle that Gandhi focused upon for the dissolution of economic conflicts is economic equality.

5. Economic Equality

In economic matters, Gandhi wanted equality to be maintained. This does not mean that equal pay should be given to all professions - doctors, engineers, teachers, lawyers, scavengers, etc. But he means by it "equitability."

Gandhi believed that goods must be distributed according to one's needs. A person who has five children should be given more goods than a person who has only two children. The Marxian principle of "To each according to his needs" is also the principle of Gandhi. However, he wanted to achieve it through "non-violent" means.

Initially, Gandhi argued for equal distribution of wages; according to it a cobbler, a lawyer and a professor should get equal wages. However, having realized the difficulty involved in its implementation, Gandhi wanted "equity" in the place of equality. He wrote: "My ideal is equal distribution, but so far as I can see, it is not to be realized. I therefore work for equitable distribution."12

Gandhi is of the view that economic conflicts will be resolved, provided the rich will act as trustees for their surplus wealth.

6. Trusteeship (Social Ownership)

Trusteeship is social ownership. It was offered as an alternative to both capitalism and communism. Gandhi was not against the rich to procure more wealth. But he wanted them to use their surplus wealth for the common good of people living in a society. He wanted the rich to act not as "owners" but as "trustees" for their surplus wealth. Once a rich man met Gandhi and said that he wanted to shut down his business and become his ashramite. At this point, Gandhi advised him to continue his business but use his surplus wealth for the welfare of the poor. Thus, Gandhi was not against the rich to earn and procure wealth, but wanted them to spend their surplus wealth for the good of the society. The rich could become a trustee, only when they practise the principle of "aparigraha" - the need based economy.

The modern concept of "Corporate Social Responsibility" (CSR) reflect the spirit of Gandhian notion of trusteeship. Under the CSR, the companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and interacting with their stakeholders. It is the way through which a company achieves a balance of economic, environmental and social imperatives.

The six-point formula of Gandhi's notion of trusteeship reads as follows:

Trusteeship provides a means of transforming the present capitalist order of society into an egalitarian one. It gives no quarter to capitalism, but gives the present owning class a chance of reforming itself. It is based on the faith that human nature is never beyond redemption.
It does not recognize any right of private ownership of property except so far as it may be permitted by society for its own welfare.
It does not exclude legislative regulation of the ownership and use of wealth.
Thus, under State-regulated trusteeship, an individual will not be free to hold or use his wealth for selfish satisfaction or in disregard of the interest of society.
Just as it is proposed to fix a decent minimum living wage, even so a limit should be fixed for the maximum income that could be allowed to any person in society. The difference between such minimum and maximum incomes should be reasonable and equitable and variable from time to time so much so that the tendency would be towards obliteration of the difference.
Under the Gandhian economic order the character of production will be determined by social necessity and not by personal whim or greed.13

The six-point notion of Gandhi on Trusteeship is known as 'Practical trusteeship formula' and its wording was finalized by Gandhi after the draft prepared by his associates including economists, was presented to him. It was first published in Harijan (25.10.1952).

There is a basic difference between Marxism and Gandhism. Both aim at the welfare of the common man in society. However, Marx and his followers wanted to bring it through force and violence. In Marxist ideology, the rich must be forced to free from their wealth. However, this is not so in Gandhism. Gandhi wanted the rich to be transformed and voluntarily share their surplus wealth with the poor. Gandhi wanted the rich to be transformed through conviction not by coercion.

All the above principles, Gandhi suggested to resolve economic conflicts, would finally lead to sarvodaya (Welfare of All).

7. Sarvodaya (Welfare of All)

Gandhi developed his principle of sarvodaya, from John Ruskin's (1829- 1910) work Unto This Last. This work came to Gandhi's hand in 1903. This work so captivated Gandhi that he read it non-stop during his journey in a train in South Africa. Being impressed by its ideas, he subsequently paraphrased it into Gujarati as "Sarvodaya". He published nine articles in Indian Opinion (1908) under the title "Sarvodaya". In these articles, Gandhi had discussed the substance of Ruskin's work.14 Gandhi remarked that Great Britain gave him Ruskin, whose Unto This Last transformed him overnight from a lawyer and city dweller into a rustic living away from Durban.15 This work had inspired Gandhi in founding the Phoenix Settlement in South Africa in 1904, on the principles of bread labour and community organization.

Sarvodaya is "Gandhi's Moral Economy."16 It is a non-violent socialism or non-violent communism. It is a synthesis of contrasting dimensions of self and society in one's life. The synthesis, Gandhi sought is in terms of sarvodaya. It is a synthesis where the individual and society become reflexive of each other and the conflict between the two would disappear. The conflict here is between 'what is good for oneself' versus 'what is good for the society.' It is the conflict between personal happiness and people's welfare.17

In the sarvodaya economics of Gandhi, economics and ethics go together. Justice and equality are the guiding principles. According to him , economic policies of a country should promote non-violent society, which implies that co-operation and not competition should be the guiding factor. Decentralization, but not centralization of power is needed for promoting a just society. In Gandhian sarvodaya state, labour and capital are not rivals, because labour itself constitutes the capital. Gandhi opined that decentralization of production as well as distribution is necessary to avoid exploitation. Therefore, he had advocated swadeshi and cottage industries.

Gandhi's sarvodaya aims at "the greatest good of all". It does not merely aim at maximum happiness of the maximum number, as we find in Mill's and Bentham's utilitarianism. According to the doctrine of utilitarianism an action is good when 51 per cent of the people in a society are satisfied with it. It does not care for the 49 per cent of the people left behind. Gandhi considers this as a "heartless doctrine".18 Gandhi's sarvodaya aims at the happiness of all. According to him an action is good when all the 100 per cent of the people are happy and satisfied. In short, Gandhi's sarvodaya aims at antyodaya - the welfare of the last man in a society i.e., welfare of the weakest and poorest man in society. Gandhi's talisman observes:

Whenever you are in doubt, or when the self becomes too much with you, apply the following test. Recall the face of the poorest and the weakest man whom you may have seen, and ask yourself, if the step you contemplate is going to be of any use to him . Will he gain anything by it? Will it restore him … control over his own life and destiny? In other words, will it lead to Swaraj for the hungry and spiritually starving millions? Then you will find your doubts and … self melting away.19

The principles laid down by Gandhi for the resolution of economic conflicts will aim at sustainable development.

8. Gandhi on Sustainable Development (Economy of Permanence)

Development is sustainable, when there is a balance between economics and moral development, between rural and urban sectors and between man and environment. Also sustainable development (SD) is possible, when man is able to realize the interdependence of all life in the universe, when he is able to perceive the holistic development of human life - physical, mental and spiritual, when he is able to recycle the waste and implement wastage-management. Gandhi's economic order focuses upon these aspects and hence it is sustainable. It constitutes a complete ideology for achieving economic development through a non-violent, egalitarian and sustainable social order. Gandhi was one of the first thinkers to formulate a normative and holistic approach which aims at material growth in conjunction with political, social and moral growths. His economic thought is founded on the precept that 'the good of the individual is contained in the good of all'. His "is an economic order of concepts, values, perspectives and directions, which aims at long-term human good and growth."20

Gandhi's prescription for sustainable growth is called by J.C.Kumarappa, as the "Economy of Permanence".21 It is even more relevant today than in Gandhi's time.

Was Gandhi an Opponent of Industrialization?

It is often argued that through his doctrine of promotion of Khadi and village industries, Gandhi was taking us back to dark ages. He was against large-scale industries and machines. However, this is a misconception. Gandhi was not against machine as such. He was against craze for machine. He was against the machine, if it exploits the poor and the weak. He was of the view that small-scale village industries will provide jobs to millions of people living in villages and hence they should be encouraged. However, he was not against using heavy machines, in the case of railways, ship building, production of steel etc. But he said that such large-scale industries should be nationalized, so that their profits will be controlled by the government.

To the question, whether he was against machine as such, Gandhi replied that he was not. He said that human body itself is like a machine, a needle is a kind of machine, the Charkha is a machine, which he loves most. Therefore, he was not against machine as such. He was against machine, when it atrophies the limbs of man, when it leaves millions of men without work and food. Gandhi viewed that in Western countries, where there is deficit of labour, machinery is required at every stage, however it is not the case in countries like India where there is surplus labour. Therefore, it must be clear that Gandhi was not against machine as such, but he opposed only craze for machinery. He was not completely against large-scale industries. He wanted socially appropriate machinery and technology. Therefore, we must work out a balance between large-scale and small-scale industries.

Conclusion

To conclude, Gandhian economic order focuses upon a social and moral basis for all human activities. Gandhi's writings may lack academic rigour. But his is an economic order of concepts, values, perspectives and directives, which aims at long-term human good, growth and progress.

According to Gandhi, ideal economic order is possible only when man is able to shed his selfish quality and care for the happiness of others. He said: 'So long as man remains selfish and does not care for the happiness of others, he is no better than an animal and perhaps worse. His superiority to the animal is seen only when we find him caring for his family. He is still more human, that is, much higher than the animal, when he extends his concept of the family to include his country or community as well. He climbs still higher in the scale when he comes to regard the human race as his family."22 According to Gandhi: "We have neither practised nor known ethical religion so long as we do not feel sympathy for every human being ... the higher morality must be comprehensive, it must embrace all men."23

I feel that economic conflicts could be resolved only when there is a change in man himself. He should be transformed from 'Economic man' to 'Gandhian man.' He has to shed his egoism and develop altruism. He/she must be able to see himself/herself in others and others in himself/herself. This presupposes to reduce oneself to zero. While the economic man is egoistic, Gandhian man is altruistic. The Gandhian man labours for his bread, practices the principles of aparigraha and swadeshi. He reduces his wants and leads a simple life with high thinking. He cares for his needs only and avoids greediness. In short, he develops the divinity within himself. He will be led by his inner voice. This requires the change from "economic man" to "Gandhian man". An economic man is a man who seeks after 'selfindulgence'. On the contrary, Gandhian man pursues after 'selfrealization'. In Gandhian philosophy, we find two kinds of self - the small self which is identified with the ego and the higher self which is identified with God or Truth. The process of self-realization in Gandhian economics is possible when there is a "continuous expansion of the Self and simultaneous shrinking of the ego".24 Unless such an expansion of Self takes place, and unless a change from economic man to Gandhian man will come about, economic conflicts remain unresolved.

Notes and References:

I am thankful to Dr. Y.P. Anand, former Director, National Gandhi Museum and Library, Rajghat, New Delhi, for going through this paper and offer useful suggestions.

Thomas Weber, Conflict Resolution and Gandhian Ethics (New Delhi: The Gandhi Peace Foundation, 1991), p. 13.

K.R Rao, Gandhi's Dharma (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2017), p. 141.

Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi (CWMG) 100 volumes, (New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1958-1994), 83: p. 118; Harijan, 1946, p.19.

CWMG 44: 103.

These Eleven Vows are satya (truth), ahimsa (non-violence), astyea (non-stealing), aparigraha (non-possession), brahmacharya (celibacy), saririka-srama (bread labour), asvadha (control of the palate), abhaya (Fearlessness), sarvadharam samabhava (equal respect for all religions), swadeshi (use of locally made goods), sparsh-bhavana (removal of untouchability).

R.K. Prabhu & U.R Rao, The Mind of Mahatma Gandhi, (Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House, 1967/2015), p. 373.

Young India, 15-11-1928, p. 382; CWMG 37: 413.

M.K. Gandhi, From Yeravada Mandir, (Ahmedabad: Navajivan Trust, 1932/2016), p. 47.

Harijan, 26-7-1942, p. 238; CWMG 76: 308-09

Harijan, 28-7-1946; CWMG, 85: p. 33.

Young India, 17-3-1927, p. 86; CWMG 48: pp. 163-64.

M.L. Dantwala, "Trusteeship: Its Value Implications", Gandhi Marg, 7: 8&9 (November -December 1985), pp. 504-505.

CWMG 8: 239 ff.

D.G.Tendulkar, Mahtama: Life of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (8 vols.). (Bombay: Vithalbhai K.Jhaveri & D.G.Tedulkar, 1951-54), vol. 6: p. 177.

K.R Rao, op.cit., p. 139.

Ibid., p.142.

R. Diwan & M.Lutz, Essays in Gandhian Economics (New Delhi: Gandhi Peace Foundation, 1985), p. 39.

Pyarelal, Mahatma Gandhi: Last Phase, Vol. X, Part II. (Ahmedabad: Navajivan, 1958) , p. 65; CWMG 89: p. 125.

Y.P Anand, "Gandhian Economic Order - An Outline," lecture delivered at GITAM University, Visakhapatnam in March, 2015, for online course program.

J.C.Kumarappa, Economy of Permanence (Varanasi: Sarva-Seva- Sangh-Prakashan, 1945/2010), p.v.

Indian Opinion, 16-2-1907; CWMG, 6: pp. 330-31.

CWMG, 6: p. 331.

Diwan, Lutz, op.cit., p. 18.

Adapted from 'Gandhi Marg', Vol 41 Number 1, April-June 2019

*SAMBASIVA PRASAD, B., was the former Professor & Head, Dept. of Philosophy, Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati and former Director, GITAM Centre for Gandhian Studies, GITAM Deemed to be University, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh. He was awarded the ICPR Senior Research Fellowship for 2017-18, and completed his project on "Economics and Ethics: A Gandhian Perspective". | Email: b.sambasivaprasad@gmail.com.