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Shanti Tseng (Tseng Shengti): Mahatma Gandhi's Chinese Disciple and a Literary Giant

- By Prashant Kaushik

Abstract

Shanti Tseng (Tseng Shengti) (1901-1982) was a writer, journalist, poet, editor, translator, literary theorist, and founder of several publications. Tseng came to India for the first time in 1925 to study at Visva-Bharati Santiniketan. After studying in Visva-Bharati for some time, he went to Sabarmati Ashram and became a disciple of Mahatma Gandhi. Shanti left Sabarmati Ashram for Singapore at the end of 1926. Shanti visited India for the second time in 1932 to see Gandhi on a hunger strike inside Yerwada Jail. He again visited India in December 1979 to research Gandhi. He breathed his last in Sewagram, Wardha, India, on 1 December 1982, at 81. He immensely contributed to developing Chinese literature in Nanyang, which corresponds to south-east Asia. The later generation of scholars in Singapore regarded him as the “navigator” of Malayan-Singapore Chinese literature, primarily because Tseng spent the prime of his life in present-day Malaysia and Singapore. Shanti wrote reminiscences of his India visits and association with Gandhi in the book Zai Gandi Xiansheng Zuoyou, later translated into English as By the Side of Bapu. This paper seeks to throw light on the life and times of Shanti Tseng, his three sojourns to India, and his contributions to the development of Chinese literature in Malaysia and Singapore, focusing on his representative work Zai Gandi Xiansheng Zuoyou.

Introduction

While Mahatma Gandhi’s association with people and countries from the Western world is relatively well documented, there is a dearth of knowledge regarding his association with people from China. In this context, it is noteworthy that Gandhi had a Chinese disciple named Shanti Tseng (Tseng Shengti: 1901-1982) who not only lived with Gandhi in Sabarmati Ashram and committed to observing Gandhian vows but was also a literary giant who contributed to the development of the Malayan-Singapore Chinese Literature in Southeast Asia, a region referred to as 'Nanyang' in the Chinese language.1 While Nanyang broadly corresponds with Southeast Asia, in the context of Shanti Tseng, it refers to the region of British Malaya comprising present-day Malaysia and Singapore since he spent the prime of his professional life there. Through a careful study of primary and secondary sources available in Chinese and English languages, this paper seeks to highlight Shanti Tseng’s association with Gandhi, his life as Gandhi's disciple, and his contribution to the development of Chinese literature in present-day Malaysia and Singapore during the second quarter of the twentieth century.

For more heuristic purposes, this paper is divided into several parts. First, it provides a biographical sketch of Shanti Tseng highlighting his early education, stay in India (1925-26) and British Malaya (late 1920s to late-1930s)2, hardships experienced during various political movements in Maoist China, and final visit to India (1979- 1982) where he also breathed his last. Second, it calls attention to the significance of Tseng’s contribution to developing Chinese literature as an independent stream of literature in British Malaya. Third, it highlights the significance of one of his most representative works-Zai Gandi Xiansheng Zuoyou (By the Side of Bapu) - as a literary and historical text. While summing up the paper’s main findings, the conclusion highlights the need to study chapters of people-to-people exchanges between India and China, like the life and work of Shanti Tseng, that lie buried in archives.

A Biographic Sketch

Shanti Tseng

Shanti Tseng (1901 - 1 December 1982) was originally named Tseng Chugiao or called Wei Shi or Zeng Manni, with a style name of Da Ji or M. Tseng was born in Fenghuang in Raoping (present-day Chaoan County of Chaozhou city), Guangdong Province. His father, Tseng Hanjing, was a xiucai3 during the Qing Dynasty (1636-1912). Tseng studied in an old-style home school under a private tutor as a child and later went to a new-type Western school named Xiamen Jimei Middle School in 1918.4 After graduating from high school, he worked with the Xiamen Newspaper for some time. He went to Singapore in 1922 to teach at the Tao Nan Middle School but returned to China six months later. Tseng was in Shanghai when Rabindranath Tagore visited China in 1924.

Tseng was influenced by Chinese Buddhist monk Su Manshu (1884-1918), who had visited India, and later by Rabindranath Tagore, who visited China in April-May 1924, Inspired by these two personalities and their advocacy of the India-China fraternity, Tseng came to India to study Sanskrit at Visva-Bharati Santiniketan, founded by Tagore. He was the first Chinese student in the modern era who came to India for higher studies.5 He studied in Santiniketan for some time, but British authorities started watching him, suspecting him of being a spy.6 This upset Tseng immensely. Tseng first heard of Mahatma Gandhi in 1925 while studying in Santiniketan. Tseng first met Gandhi in May 1925 when the latter visited Santiniketan. Tseng met Gandhi again in Calcutta, where he requested Gandhi to let him join Sabarmati Ashram. Gandhi agreed to Tseng’s request and was sent to Sabarmati Ashram by Gandhi. Tseng stayed in Sabarmati Ashram from July 1925 till October 1926, thus becoming the first and the only Chinese disciple of Mahatma Gandhi.

In a letter written to Ramdas Gandhi from Calcutta on 27 July 1925, Mahatma Gandhi wrote, “A young Chinese is also here. He seems very polite and industrious. He has come to me as Santiniketan could not accommodate him. He will go to the Ashram with Jamnadas.”7 Gandhi liked Tseng and gave him his Indian name, “Shanti”. Gandhi wrote: “At present the Chinese student seems to possess all fine qualities of character. At his own request, he has been given an Indian name. We call him Shanti.”8 Tseng immediately changed his name to Tseng Shengti or Shanti Tseng, a name that stayed with him for the rest of his life. Tseng left Sabarmati Ashram for Singapore in October 1926.

Tseng worked with Chinese language newspapers and publications in British Malaya between 1927 and 1937. He served as a news translator for Nanyang Siang Pau and later became its seventh chief editor in May 1930.9 In August 1931, he left Nanyang Siang Pau and planned to study in Europe. However, after the Shanghai Incident of 28 January 1932, also known as/the 28 January incident, in which Japan launched an aggressive assault on Shanghai, Tseng changed his plan and moved to Penang, Malaysia. In Penang, he started a newspaper under the name “Telegraph News” (Dianxun Xinwen) with his friends with the aim of carrying out anti-Japanese propaganda. In 1932, Tseng also came to India for the second time, especially to meet Gandhi, who was on a fast unto death inside Yerwada/Jail in Poona.

In 1936, he was hired by Penang’s “Modern Daily” (Xiandai Ribao) to serve as its editorial director. Tseng organised an “Overseas Chinese War Reporters Correspondence Group” (Huagiao zhandi jizhe tongxuntuan) following the rise in anti-Japanese sentiments among overseas Chinese in British Malaya after the “7 July Incident” in 1937 in which Chinese and Japanese armed forces exchanged heavy fire at the outskirts of Peking. Tseng gathered six young men in their twenties from the local Chinese reading clubs and formed a seven-member reporter group to go to the front line of the fighting in China to report from the battlefield. These seven journalists came from Singapore, Penang, Bacheng, Java, Sumatra, and Siam. They carried several cameras and an enlarger, representing 11 newspaper offices and two publishing houses from Southeast Asia.10

The group reached Hong Kong in November 1987 from Singapore, travelling in the “Fengping” freighter. They stayed in Hong Kong for ten days and were welcomed by the Hong Kong Office of the 19th Route Army, the Southwest Bureau of the Communist Party of China, and many anti-Japanese groups in Hong Kong.11 The group joined more than ten other Chinese newspaper reporters from Singapore, Malaysia, and Thailand to travel to Wuhan city in the north, serving as the national military and political center then. They also set up their head office in Wuhan.12 With the spread of anti-Japanese resistance, the group decided to travel to various places to cover the war and filed reports from Fujian, Hainan Island, Xuzhou, and many other places. People in China and Nanyang widely appreciated Tseng’s initiative to report on the war.13

Tseng shifted to China before the Japanese invasion of Southeast Asia in 1941-42 and settled down in Tianjin after the end of the war in China. However, he faced numerous ups and downs following his return to China. He ran a petty business in Chaoshan and Chongqing for survival, and after relocating to Tianjin, he started a tailoring business to make ends meet.14 He could not write much after 1949 due to a series of political movements. Since he could not suddenly become a “leftist writer” (zuoyi wenren) in Mao's China, he had to undergo a series of study sessions and self-criticisms through the 1950s and 1960s. During the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (1966-77), his home was ransacked after he was labelled a rightist. His manuscripts and translations were thrown out in the open to disintegrate in the wind and rain. He was forced to give up writing and had to turn to the study of medicine instead. He displayed prodigious skills and prepared five sets of medical notes, which he effectively used to treat village people when he was sent to the countryside in Guangxi in 1969. Tseng returned to Tianjin after the end of the Cultural Revolution.15

However, Tseng’s Indian friends had never forgotten him. He was invited to visit India in 1961 by his old bosom friend Dr. G. Ramachandran (1904-1995), who had studied with him in Santiniketan and Sabarmati Ashram, and who was then the Secretary of Gandhi Peace Foundation, New Delhi, but the visit could not materialise as the Chinese government denied him permission due to growing clashes and hostilities with India.16

In December 1979, Gandhi Peace Foundation invited him to India again to research Gandhi's life and thoughts. Before leaving China, the Chinese authorities finally recognized his status and gave him the designation of a Research Fellow, Institute of South Asian Studies, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (Zhongguo sheltui kexue yuan nanya yanjiusuo yanjiuyuan). Notably, there were very few people with either the designation of a full professor or a Research Fellow in China in the 1970s, and Tseng was one of them.17

He wrote to his old friend Dr. G. Ramachandran, who was then Vice-Chancellor of Gandhigram Rural University, that “I am as old as the great Monk Fa Hian who came to India centuries ago... I would like to spend the rest of my life in India mending the Sino-Indian friendship fence.” In response, Dr. G. Ramachandran’s wife, Dr. T.S. Soundram Ramachandran, replied, welcoming him, “You may be the modern Fa Hian”.18

Tseng reached India for the third time in December 1979 with his wife, Chen Kemei, and two grandchildren, granddaughter Tseng Yelan and grandson Wu Hong. The Gandhi Peace Foundation was supposed to have provided them with local hospitality in New Delhi, but that did not happen, and they were sent to Sewagram Ashram, Wardha, Maharashtra. They stayed in Sewagram Ashram for the next few years. Tseng’s grandson Wu Hong was admitted to Kasturba Vidya Mandir and granddaughter Yelan joined a Wardha College to complete her education in India.19

During his third visit, Tseng had plans to travel to central and southern India, visit friends to find Gandhi’s footprints, and complete a book of about 500,000 words titled “A Non-violent War in India” (Feibaoli zhangzheng zai yindu).20 Tseng wrote in one of his letters: “I have an inseparable relationship with India. I am 77 years old now, an old weak horse trudging against the harsh westerlies, yet I come here to wander. Now I live in the small town of Wardha in Central India. Thanks to my old friend, Ramachandran Lam staying in Mahatma Gandhi's Sevagram Ashram. I have made a vow to write a book like the famous Chinese novel “Romance of the Three Kingdoms” (San guo yanyi) and the Russian Leo Tolstoy's “War and Peace” in about 500,000 words, 100,000 words per year, which will take {five years to complete.”21

But his wish remained unfulfilled as he breathed his last in Sewagram, Wardha, India, in the early morning of 1 December 1982, at 81.22 However, during his last stay in India, Tseng got one of his most representative works Zai Gandi Xiansheng Zuoyou translated into English under the title By the Side of Bapu, After his death, Mrs. Tseng returned to China, grandson Wu Hong went for higher studies in the US, and granddaughter Yelan Tseng stayed back in India for higher studies. She later married Kranti Gutta and settled down in India.23

During his third stay in India, Tseng also regularly wrote for Chinese newspapers in Singapore and Malaysia, including works such as Old Man Shanti’s Memories («Shengti Laoren zai huiyi»), Flowing Water and Floating Clouds («Liu shui xing yun»), Dedicated To the Homeland («Xian gei xiang tu») among others.24

He also translated Tagore’s “Naukadubi” into Chinese as Fu zhou and published it in the magazine Reader, Literature and Art («Du zhe wenyin). His Essays on a Southwest Journey («Xinan xing suibi») were published in Literary Spring and Autumn («Wenyi chungiu»). The special 70th-anniversary commemorative issue of the Penang Kwong Wah Daily published Tseng’s novel The Story of the People of Southeast Asia («Dong nanya renmin de gushi»), poetry anthology Gazing Southard («Nan wang»). Prose such as Tears of the Boat People («Chuan min lei»), Flying Over the South China Sea («Fei guo Nan Zhongguohai») were published in Sing Pin Ji Pao. Tseng's Ten Thousand Lines of Poetry in Southeast Asia («Nanhai wan hang shiv) was published in the supplement of the Sing Pin Ji Pao in 1984, titled “Looking at the South” - the posthumous work of Tseng Shanti” («Nan woang—Tseng Shengti Xiansheng Yizhe»). It was a long poem describing the struggle of millions of Chinese people in Southeast Asia.25

A Literary Giant

Shanti Tseng was a literary giant who contributed to developing Malayan-Singapore Chinese Literature as a writer, journalist, poet, essayist, editor, translator, literary theorist, and founder of several publications.26 The early Malayan-Singapore Chinese Literature sprouted in British Malaya under the influence of China’s New Culture Movement in the initial decades of the twentieth century.27 At that time, most of the authors in British Malaya were migrants from China who had not yet considered British Malaya their home. Most of the literary works were based on themes from China depicting the migrants’ sentiments, whereas most publications published clippings from China, and thus, original writings were few. With the majority of writers in British Malaya regarding China as their ‘teacher’, the Chinese literary world in the region during the early decades of the twentieth century was dominated by Chinese literary trends. It existed as an offshoot of Chinese literature.28 Under such circumstances, Shanti Tseng, along with his two younger brothers, who were also literary figures, Tseng Huading (?-1942) and Tseng Yuyang (1910-2), and several colleagues, vigorously promoted the localization of Chinese literature in British Malaya, which undoubtedly helped the local Chinese literature to truly break away from mainland Chinese literature and emerge as an independent branch of Chinese language literature in the world.

Although several writers and editors before Tseng had advocated that Chinese language literature emanating from British Malaya or Nanyang should possess local flavour and themes, his call to “forge the iron tower of literature and art in Nanyang with blood and sweat” (“yi xue yu han zhuzao Nanyang wenyi de tieta”) was by far the most resounding and persistent one which also had far-reaching implications. Tseng himself matched his words with action by spearheading the shift in Chinese literature in British Malaya from aestheticism to realism.29 Tseng managed to do this by playing an instrumental role in establishing and running some of the representative literary supplements in British Malaya, advocating ground-breaking theoretical innovations, and practising what he preached through his pen.

Steering Literary Supplements

Given the financial constraints, literary supplements attached to newspapers were Southeast Asia’s main literary publications in the late 1920s.30 On 18 August 1927, Shanti Tseng, Huadu Rongnv, Zhang Fang, and Tseng Huading co-founded the Honghuang literary supplement of Nanyang Siang Pau. Honghuang represented a shift towards realism in Malayan-Singapore Chinese literature through its advocacy of “awakening of spirit” (“ling de juexing”) and “liberation of human nature” (“renxing de jiefang”).31 It advocated facing the world with true feelings, “to advance courageously and create new life” (“guyong qianjin, zhuangzao xinsheng”). It also published original works full of praise of true feelings such as essay The World of Love («Qing de shijian») written by Huadu Rongnv calling for the blood of youth to be ignited for true love; and poem Moonset («Yue luo») written by Tseng expressing the feeling of being dissatisfied with the world and having nowhere to escape.32

Honghuang ran for 24 issues between August 1927 to November 1928, which included 52 poems, 26 essays, 16 novels, and six papers. Tseng himself wrote poems White Bird («Bai niao erzhang»), Autumn Evening («Qiuwan»), Wandering World («Huang huang renjian»), Moonset («Yue luo»); novels such as Suicide («Zisha»), Principal («Xiaozhang»), Detective («Zhentan»), Father's Love («Fu air) and so on.

Honghuang was discontinued in November 1928, perhaps because Tseng and his close associates wanted to advocate a new set of ideas by then. Thus, Literary Weekly («Wenyi zhaokan») a fresh literary supplement of Nanyang Siang Pau was founded in January 1929. Tseng announced the launch of Literary Weekly and its founding mission on 1 January 1929, through his article published in the Literature and Art Section of the Nanyang Siang Pau: “This publication has no special mission, she just wants to find some local native grains (genuine literary works rooted the Nanyang region) in the scorching hot country (of Nanyang). Although she doesn’t want to find diamonds and beads to decorate her marble palace, but she is willing to recruit her sympathizers, and at the same time, to forge the iron tower of literature and art in Nanyang with blood and sweat beyond coconut and rubber trees.”33 From then on “to forge the iron tower of literature and art in Nanyang with blood and sweat” (“yi xue yu han zhuzao Nanyang wenyi de tieta’”) became synonymous with the literary ideas of Shanti Tseng.34

In the same section, Tseng also wrote an article titled Literature and Art in Nanyang («Nanyang de wenyi») to rectify the misconceptions about literature and art in Nanyang among Chinese literati who had come to Nanyang from China. Clearly underscoring the existence of Nanyang literature and art Tseng wrote: “Is there a palace of literature and art in Nanyang, whether is it possible to build a palace of literature and art or is there literature and art in Nanyang that can be found. I would like to climb up high and declare loudly to the young people who love literature and art at home and abroad that Nanyang Asia is the treasure house of modern literature and art, she is the source of infinite and inexhaustible literature and art.”35

Tseng gave voice to his strong desire to independently establish Nanyang literature and art by dealing with the Malay culture and describing the life of Chinese and other people living in British Malaya.36 Tseng wanted the literature in British Malaya to have distinct regional characteristics rather than exist as “remake” of stories from mainland China, and wanted to create a self-sufficient literature that was not dependent on mainland China.37

In an article titled Wake Up! Artists of the Star City («Xingxing bal Xingcheng de yiren») published in the third issue of the Literary Weekly on 18 January 1929, Tseng lashed out at the narrow and decadent literature and art of the time and appealed to make full use of the fresh local environment and the infinite number of materials to represent the lives of people under the prevailing circumstances in British Malaya. He also voiced the firm belief that literature and art in British Malaya could become a fresh and unique palace of art by itself.38 In the essay Truth Leads Us («Zhenli lingdao zhe women») Tseng frankly and explicitly advocated that literature and art are not an ideal paradise full of illusory fantasies but a country of truth originating from life.39

‘Tseng spared no effort in bringing the Malay culture to the fore in literary creations by encouraging translations of Malay literary works and folk songs and publishing works with Malay cultural flavour. The subject matter included narrating the life and experiences of Chinese indentured labour (zhu zai), nostalgia for the homeland, gender equality, love, and education, among others, mostly narrated through many local vocabularies.

The Literary Weekly («Wenyi zhoukan») ran for a total of 41 issues, publishing 45 new poems, 23 novels, 29 essays, 3 plays, and 1 thesis. Tseng himself contributed poems Funeral Song («Zangge»), novels Life and Sin («Sheng yu 2ui»), Divine Grace («Shen en»), Revolutionary Man («Gemingren»), essays Wake Up! Artists of the Star City («Xingxing ba! Xingcheng de yiren»), Truth Lends Us («Zhenli lingdao zhe women»), Niroana («Niepan») and so on.

Tseng was representative of the writers who helped the early Malayan-Singapore Chinese literature make the transition towards realism from aestheticism — realism which was rooted in the experiences and lives of people living in British Malaya and not elsewhere. Its greatest contribution was creating several works with British Malaya characteristics in subject matter and language, which enriched the Chinese literary scene in Singapore and Malaysia in the 1920s and 1930s and earnestly launched the localization process of Nanyang Chinese literature.40 Tseng himself widely used popular local dialects and vocabulary from other ethnic languages in his literary works, such as ‘hou wei’ (hou mian: behind), ‘ging xin’ (xin li shuchang:feel at ease), ‘feng che’ (qi che:car); and English such as ‘ai shang ji lin’ (ice cream) among others.41 Tseng’s novel Life and Sin («Sheng yu zi») and reminiscences of the time spent with Mahatma Gandhi, written as an essay collection, were two of the most representative works in Malayan-Singapore Chinese Literature of that era.

Novel Life and Sin (Sheng yu =ui)

Among a dozen novels Tseng wrote, Life and Sin is generally regarded as the most successful. It narrates the story of a rickshaw puller identified as “Father of Goujian” (Goujian de die) who loses his means of livelihood after his rickshaw gets broken after being hit by a car. He has a pregnant wife and five small kids at home crying out of hunger, waiting to be fed. Facing the empty walls of his shanty, he gets immersed in boundless fantasies to tackle his pain. He walks out into the street helplessly and sees other rickshaw pullers working hard to fend for themselves. He gets envious and depressed. Left without any options, he loses his mental balance, picks up a gun, and decides to rob others. But he gets caught by the police, arrested, and imprisoned. The story concludes this way, devoid of a tragic or a happy ending. However, in addition to using the typical atmosphere and language in British Malaya, it also describes the delicate psychological state of his characters, such as when suffering from acute hunger “Father of Goujian started staring at the big loaf of bread from the glass window. He saw that the loaves were dancing... and then the biggest loaf ran out of the shop...” (“Goujian de die” ningshi zhe bolichuangli de damianbao. Ta kanjian tamen zai tiaowu....ta kanjian nage zuidade mianbao cong dianli paochulai”)”.42

Interestingly, Life and Sin was written earlier than the much-acclaimed Rickshaw Boy («Luotuo xiangzi») by renowned Chinese writer Lao She (1899-1966), which appeared in 1936-37. Although Life and Sin was not a full-length novel like Rickshaw Boy, it vividly depicted the life, hardships, pain, misery, and sufferings experienced by the lower classes of that era in British Malaya.

Essay Collection Zai Gandi Xiansheng Zuoyou (By the Side of Bapu)

Among the numerous essays written by Shanti Tseng, the collection of his essays Zai Gandi Xiansheng Zuoyou describing his India sojourns particularly deserve mention, especially in the broader context of the evolution of essay writing in Chinese literature in British Malaya. Prose essays were one of the earliest forms of literary writing in British Malaya, but they remained short in length until the early 1930s. Essays compiled in Zai Gandi Xiansheng Zuoyou were long and very rich in content compared with other essays of the period, which only wrote about life and experiences from British Malaya.43 Tseng was the first to ‘internationalise’ the content by writing about his experiences visiting India and staying with Mahatma Gandhi. This experience was unique and special and attracted readers to it. Moreover, Tseng’s effort to write essays comprising several thousand characters each and publish them as a collection was truly pioneering.44

‘Tseng had actually written the book in March 1943 following a rush of emotions on knowing about the 21 days long fast by Mahatma Gandhi in February-March 1943 to protest against the British Government's propaganda that the Congress Party was responsible for disturbances after the Quit India resolution was passed in 1942. Gandhi was 74 years old in 1943, and such a long fasting period was life-threatening. Old memories engulfed Tseng on getting this news, and he finished writing the book in 10 days. In the foreword written on 4 March 1943, the first day after Gandhi ended his fast, Tseng mentions, “This book is written specially for the event that Bapu went on fasting for the sixth time... For some time in 1924, I served Bapu in Sabarmati Ashram. Then in 1932, when Bapu announced in Yeravada Jail that he would ‘fast unto death over a religious conflict, I went to visit him again. This book is ‘an account of my two trips there and lingering memories of my contact with him.”45

The book Zai Gandi Xiansheng Zuoyou was first published in Chongqing in March 1943 by the Chongqing Gujin Publishing House. The book cover was painted by the famous Chinese cartoonist and painter Ye Qianyu (1907-1995).46 It was next published in Shanghai in 1948 by the Zhen Shan Mei Book Company following Gandhi's assassination. This edition also carried an obituary written by the then Chinese ambassador to India, Luo Jialun (1897-1969).47 The book was subsequently published several times in Singapore in 1953, 1959, and 2007 by The Youth Book Co., underscoring its continuous popularity.

The book provides a detailed record of Tseng’s experiences of following Gandhi and introduces Gandhi's non-violent ideology and thoughts to readers. After its publication in 1948 it was hailed as one of the best books of its time published in China, “a wonder in modern Chinese literature”, “a remarkable piece of reportage in Malayan Chinese Literature”.48 It was a truly influential work that also inspired the later generation of Singaporeans, such as Lien Shih Sheng (1907-1973). Lien Shih Sheng moved to Singapore in 1949 and, much like Tseng, served Nanyang Siang Pau as a reporter, chief writer, and editor-in-chief. Among 23 books Lien wrote, three biographies, that of Mahatma Gandhi, Rabindranath Tagore, and Jawaharlal Nehru, were perhaps influenced by his predecessor Shanti Tseng.49 No wonder Tseng and his works have always been a popular topic of study and research in the development history of Malayan-Singapore Chinese literature.

During Tseng’s third visit to India between 1979 and 1982, Zai Gandi Xiansheng Zuoyou was translated into English under the title “By the Side of Bapu” by “Miss Kwan Zi”50 with financial support from the Gandhi Peace Foundation, New Delhi. It was published in India by Sarva Seva Sangh Prakashan, Rajghat, Varanasi, and Sewagram Ashram Pratishthan, Wardha, Maharashtra in March 1982. The Introduction of the English edition was written by noted Gandhian and Tseng’s bosom friend Desikottama Dr. G Ramachandran. The English version also consisted of three appendices in addition to the original ten chapters. The foreword was originally written by Shanti Tseng himself on 4 March 1943, the first day after Gandhi ended his 21-day fast. Tseng mentions in the foreword that in 1943 he could not travel to India like in 1932 and decided to pen the book primarily as a narrative account of Gandhi's role in the Indian Independence Struggle and recording his short stay by the side of Bapu.51

Zai Gandi Xiansheng Zuoyou: Content

The book consists of ten chapters: Visited Yeravada Jail (Puna Jianyu), My Maiden Voyage to India (Yindu chulv), In Sabarmati Ashram (Axulan zhong), A Routine of Mahatma (Babuzi qiju zhu), Eternal Interflow in Culture (Yongheng de jiaoliu), Restless and Whimsical (Xinmo), Along The River (He shang xing), Little Stories (Xiao gushi), Fast and Silence (Jueshi he jingmo), and Departure (Bieli). All these chapters graphically recorded and described the person and personality of Mahatma Gandhi and introduced the ideals of non-violence to Chinese readers in elegant and beautiful Chinese prose. Tseng’s writing style was anchored in his training in classical Chinese language and Chinese Classics from early childhood, making his writing smooth and delightful, as the following excerpts illustrate.

Tseng begins the book by detailing his second visit to India in 1982 to meet Gandhi in Yerawada Jail. In 1932, Tseng first arrived in Calcutta from Singapore, from where he took a train to Delhi and Poona. He stopped in Ahmedabad to visit Sabarmati Ashram. Visiting Ahmedabad after a gap of more than five years in 1932, Tseng found the city the same as before.

In the following chapters, Tseng took his readers from Santiniketan in Eastern India to Sabarmati Ashram in Western India via Wardha and Bombay, detailing his journey from being a student in Santiniketan to becoming a disciple of Gandhi.

When Tseng reached Sabarmati Ashram for the first time in 1925, he did not know whom the residents of Sabarmati Ashram called “Bapu”. After realising that “Bapu” was none other than Mahatma Gandhi, Tseng really pitied himself. He vividly described the life and discipline inside the Ashram.

In Sabarmati Ashram, Tseng was also a representative of China since almost every visiting journalist and curious Indian met him to learn more about China.52 Tseng introduced the classic Sanskrit play Shakuntala, and the Indian epic Ramayana to his readers, comparing them with the famous Yuan dynasty (1271- 1368) drama “Xi Xiangji” and the Ming dynasty (1368- 1644) novel “Monkey Goes West” («Xi youji») while pointing to the Indian influence on Chinese literature.53 Tseng described the disciplined life and daily routine of Mahatma Gandhi and the excellent bonding that he shared with his bosom friend G, Ramachandran who had also studied with him in Santiniketan before joining him in Sabarmati Ashram.

It was very touching for Tseng to see that going to jail was a real aspiration for young kids living in the Sabarmati Ashram. Tseng also described the pigeons, cats, and peacocks living in the Ashram and fish from the adjacent Sabarmati River. Tseng learnt Sanskrit, Hindustani, and English during his stay in India and also highlighted Gandhi's zeal for promoting Hindustani as a common language for all Indians.

Undertaking a purificatory fast for ten days from 1 September to 10, 1925 was a life-changing experience for Tseng.54 Giving the reason for undertaking the fast, Tseng writes: “...partly to settle the accounts of the first half of my life and partly to satisfy my childish curiosity, I wrote a letter and handed it personally to Bapu to seek permission for a ten-day fast.”55 Narrating the scene when he informed Gandhi of his decision to go for a ten-day fast, Tseng writes: “He agreed, but only to my fasting for three days. Left with no choice, I told him in curt finality that I had made up my mind. I understood Bapu well. So long as one was determined, he would not hold the person back. Sure enough, after what I said, he did not object anymore...”56

In the daily account of his fast, Tseng narrates his feelings in detail, from physical pain and numbness of consciousness to fulfilment and exuberance of spirit towards the end. It was very tough initially, and Tseng vomited and even lost consciousness, but at last, his spirit started to get restored, and he was able to sort out his entangled thoughts one by one. Gandhi meticulously looked after him throughout his fast. He lost 15 Ibs. after the fast, but it sorted out his thoughts and made him more patient in character.57 Tseng also observed silence for one month. It was difficult initially, and Tseng broke his silence several times in the first week. But then he learnt to concentrate his thoughts and successfully observed silence for a month. After observing fast and silence Tseng also promised to abide by Gandhian vows.

Gandhi wanted Tseng to become a scholar in Sino-Indian relations. Moreover, a secretary visiting Sabarmati Ashram from Santiniketan told Tseng that Gurudev Tagore wanted him to join Santiniketan as a Chinese teacher, and Santiniketan would take care of his food and lodging too. But Tseng declined nonetheless and decided to leave the Sabarmati Ashram owing to “personal reasons”.58 Gandhi wrote to C.F. Andrews: “Shanti is about to leave for Singapore in search of a living as he wishes to support the girl whom he expects some day to marry.”59

‘Tseng describes the scene of his departure from Sabarmati Ashram in a sublime manner: “All night, there was no moon. Loud, clear but gentle singing of hymns whiffed from the Worship square on the banks of River Sabarmati. I slung on my back a big white travelling bag, wore a long khadi dress, wrapped a white dhoti below, sported a snow white Gandhi cap and wore a pair of clumsy shoes. Like a log. I sat at the last row of the square, before a stanza of the hymn had been finished, my face was drenched with tears... “Bapu asked me to sit beside him. Facing the crowd and the villagers, he announced formally my departure. Everybody wished me well. When the train from New Delhi nearly arrived at the station, I stood up to bid Bapu farewell, I bent and touched his feet. He patted my back. My tears gushed out. In the dark. I could not see his face. Nor did I dare to look at him in the eye. He blessed me and hoped that I would write every month.”60

Conclusion

Shanti Tseng is perhaps one of the many forgotten chapters in the long history of people-to-people exchanges between India and China. He represents a relationship that continues despite all the twists and turns, underscored by the fact that he is also the maternal great-grandfather of famous Arjuna Awardee Indian badminton player Jwala Gutta.“61 Tseng was Mahatma Gandhi's first and only Chinese disciple and the only Chinese with the most thorough understanding of Gandhi and his ideals. As a disciple of Gandhi, Tseng’s advocacy for independent literature rooted in people, stories, themes, and culture of British Malaya just after he returned to Singapore from Sabarmati Ashram was much likely influenced by Gandhian values. Tseng’s own literary creations bore an unmistakable Gandhian imprint of advocacy of consistent struggle and persistent efforts to attain one’s goals. Quite naturally, Tseng put to practice things he learnt in Sabarmati and India to practice in his professional career.

Nonetheless, from the point of view of academic inquiry, many questions remain unanswered about Shanti Tseng, such as why he chose to settle down in Tianjin following the Second World War. Intriguingly, a southern Chinese like Tseng, who had spent most of his life in British Malaya, chose to settle in northern China. Why did he not return to Southeast Asia but chose India for his final years? A more detailed study of his life and career in Maoist China and his stay in India during his last years could also shed more light on the nature of recent contacts between India and China.

Acknowledgement

The author sincerely thanks Priyanka R. Kadam, Monika S. Nagdeote, and Rohit Raj for arranging primary and secondary sources from Singapore and Taiwan. The author is grateful to Dr. Madhavi Thampi and Dr. Smruti Ranjan Dhal for going through the earlier drafts and offering valuable suggestions.

Notes and References

  1. Southeast Asia is also referred to as Nanyang in old Chinese, a shorter version for Nanyang qundao denoting the South Sea Islands comprising the Malay Archipelago, the Malay Peninsula and Indonesia. This paper also uses ‘Nanyang’ to denote ‘Southeast Asia’.
  2. It is pertinent to note that this paper uses the term “British Malaya” to refer to the parts of Malay Archipelago, including present-day Malaysia and Singapore, which were under the British colonial control. The British Malaya was also the part of bigger Southeast Asia referred to as Nanyang in Chinese.
  3. A scholar who passed the imperial examination at the county level in the Ming and Qing dynasties was called Xiucai.
  4. New Type Western Schools appeared towards the end of the Qing Empire in late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Their curriculum comprised natural sciences, foreign languages and information about countries other than China. Such schools were established by foreign missionaries, Qing government and as well as civil organizations led by reformers and revolutionaries.
  5. Yu Longyu, “Chinese Studies in India”, Academic Research, ( 2000/1/ )Literature, pp. 120-123. (Yu Longyu “Zhongguoxue zai Yindu”, «Xueshu yanjiu» 2000/1/wenxue, 120-123)
  6. Shanti Tseng, By the Side of Bapu, (Wardha: Sewagram Ashram Pratishthan, 1982), p.87
  7. “Letter to Ramdas Gandhi”, July 27, 1925, Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi (CWMG) VOL 032, pp.188, accessed on 12 Dec 2022.
  8. “Letter to Jugal Kishore Birla”, April 28, 1926, CWMG, VOL 035, pp.153, accessed on 12 Dec 2022.
  9. Renping Wen, “The only Chinese disciple of Mahatma Gandhi: Tseng Shengti” (2016). (Wen Renping, “Shengxiong Gandi de weiyi zhongguo dizi: Tseng Shengti)”, accessed on 10 Nov 2022.
  10. Xianwen Zhang et.al. Thematic History of the Republic of China: Overseas Chinese and Nation Building, Vol.14, (Nanjing: Nanjing University Press, 2015) p.336. (Zhang Xianwen, Zhang Yufa deng «Zhonghua Minguo zhuanti shi: Huagiao yu guojia jianshe» Nanjing Daxue Chubanshe, 2015: 336)
  11. Gang Song, “Tseng Shengti”: Messenger of Peace, Giant of Literature”, Shantou University Journal (Humanities and Social Sciences), 2003. (Song Gang (2003) “Heping shizhe, Wentan sujiang “Tseng Shengti” «Shantou Daxue xuebao (renwen shehui kexue ban)», 2003) (chinajournal.net), accessed on 28 Oct 2022.
  12. Ibid.
  13. Ibid.
  14. Ibid.
  15. Ibid.
  16. R. Ramachandran Nair, “By the Side of Bapu by Shanti Tseng”. Oct 2, 2020, accessed on 25 Oct 2022.
  17. Qifeng Cheng, “The Shore of the South—Remembering a Person and a Book”, (2019). (Cheng Qifeng, “Nanfiang de an: Ji yi ge ren he yi ben shu”, (2019), accessed on 10 Nov 2022.
  18. Nair, 2020, op. cit.
  19. Ibid.
  20. Also tentatively titled “«Sheng xiong ling feng"» (“Mahatma’s Persuasion”, or “Visiting the Footprints of Mahatma”) (See Song 2003, op. cit).
  21. Ibid.
  22. R. Ramachandran Nair, "Dove of Peace (2006, p. viii), accessed on 28 Oct 2022.
  23. Nair, 2020, op.
  24. Song, 2003, op.cit.
  25. Ibid.
  26. Sha Meng, “Talking about the History of Chinese Novels”, see Li Jinzong ed. “Malaysian Chinese Literature: Historical Materials: 1965-1996”. (Kuala Lumpur: Rainbow Publishing Co., Ltd., Malaysian Chinese Writers Association, 2004), p. 700. (Meng Sha, «Mahua xiaoshuo yange zongheng tan», jian Li Jinzong zhubian: “Mahuawenxue da xi: Shiliao:1965-1996" (Jilongpo shi: Caihong chuban youxian gongsi, malaixiya hua wen zuojia xiehui, 2004: 70.
  27. See: Daiyun Le, “Looking at Chinese Literature from the Perspective of World Cultural Exchange”, in “Selected Papers on Chinese Literature in Taiwan, Hong Kong and Overseas” compiled by the Academic Group of the Third National Symposium on Taiwan, Hong Kong and Overseas Literature (Fuzhou: Strait Literature and Art Publishing House, 1988). (Le Daiyun.1988.”Cong shijie wenhua jiaoliu kan huawen wenxue”, jian Quanguo di san jie Taiwan, Xianggang yu haiwai wenxue yantao hui dahui xueshu zu xuanbian “Taiwan Xianggang yu haicoai huawen wenxue lunwen xuan"(Fuzhou shi: Haixia wenyi chuban she, 1988 nian 9 yue)
    Dan Liang, “Forging Iron Tower of Literature and Art in Nanyang with Blood and Sweat: In Honor of Zeng’s Brothers”, Shantou University Journal (Humanities & Social Sciences Bimonthly) Vol.24. No.32008, (2008), pp.79-83. (Liang Dan, “Yi xue yu han zhuzao Nanyang wenyi de tieta—lun Tseng Shengti, Tseng Huading, Tseng Yuyang xiongdi de zaoqi wenyi linian ji chuangzuo”, Shantou Daxue xuebao (renwven shehui kexue ban), Di 24 juan di 3 qi, 2008 nian di 79-83 ye)
  28. Ibid, Runhua Wang, “Going out of the colonies: Post-colonial Singapore and Malaysia Literature” in Runhua Wang (ed.), Chinese Post-colonial Literature - Reflections on Local Multiculturalism (Taipei: Wenshizhe Publishing House, September 2001). (Wang Runhua (2001) “Zouchu zhimindi de xin ma hou zhimin wenxue”, jian Wang Runhua: “Huawen hou zhimin wenxue—bentu duoyuan wenhua de sikao” (Taibei shi: Wen shi zhe chubanshe, 2001 nian 9 yue.)
  29. Song, 2003, op. cit.
  30. Ibid.
  31. Ibid.
  32. Liang, 2008, op.cit., p.79.
  33. Ibid, Originally in Chinese: “Zhege kanwu bing wu tebie shiming, ta zhi xiang zai wanli yan yang de re guo, zhaoxun yixie tuchan tu zhi de liang liao, ta sui buxiang zhaoxun zuanshi yu zhuzi, yi shi qi yun shi zhi gong, dan ta que qingyuan zhaomu ta de tongging zhe, tongshi gao (zai) ye fiao shu zhi wai, yi xue yu han zhuzao Nanyang wenyi de tieta.”, «Nanyang shang bao: Wenyi zhoukan» First Issue, January 1, 1929. (English translation by the author.)
  34. Yang Songnian, Zhou Weijie, Research on Literary Supplements of Early Chinese Newspapers in Singapore 1927-30, Educational Publications Bureau Pte Ltd, 1980, p.37. (Yang Songnian, Zhou Weijie. Xinjiapo zaogi huawen baozhang wenyi fukan yanjiu 1927-30, (Xinjiapo: Jiaoyu chubanshe siying youxian gongsi, 1980 nian, di 37 ye.)
  35. From Liang 2008, p.79, op.cit. Originally in Chinese: “Nanyang jiujing you meiyou wenyi zhi gong, jiujing kefou jianli wenyi zhi gong, huo Nanyang jiujing you meiyou wenyi keyi xunfang. Wo yu denggao ji hu, zhao gao hai neiwai zhi aihao wenyi zhi gingnian yue: Nanyang nai xiandai wenyi zhi baoku, ta nai qu zhi wujin yong zhi wu jie de wenyi zhi yuanquan.” English translation by author.
  36. Ibid, p.79-80.
  37. JSSS, “Special Edition on Theoretical Discussion and Creative Practice of Chinese Literature”, Journal of the South Seas Society, Volume 71, (November 2017), p.54. (“Huayu wenxue de lilun tantao yu chuangzuo shijian zhuanji”, «Nanyang xuebao» di qishiyi juan * er ling yiqi nian shiyi yue. di 54 ye.)
  38. Liang, 2008, op.cit., p.80.
  39. Ibid, p81.
  40. JSSS, 2017, op.cit., p.54.
  41. Songnian Yang, The Formation and Development of Local Consciousness in Singapore and Malayan Literature Before the War (Singapore: Department of Chinese, National University of Singapore, Bafang Culture Enterprise, 2001), p.76-77. (Yang Songnian “Zhan gian Xin ‘Ma wenxue bendi yishi de xingcheng yu fazhan” (Xinjiapo: Xinjiapo guoli daxue zhongwen xi, Bafang wenhua qiye, 2001 nian, di 76-77 ye)
  42. Song, 2003, op.cit.
  43. Chen Jiajun, “A Preliminary Study of the Linguistic Features of Shanti Tseng’s By the Side of Bapu” in The Collection of Literary Linguistics (Taipei: Wanjuanlou Books Co., Ltd., 2018), pp.75-104. (Chen Jiajun, “Tseng Shengti “Zai Gandi xiansheng zuoyou” yuyan tese chutan” «Wenxue yuyan xue lun jix, Wan juan lou tushu gufen youxian gongsi, Taibei shi, 2018 nian, di 75-104 ye.)
  44. Ibid, p.78.
  45. Tseng, 1982, op.cit,, pili.
  46. Ye Qianyu had visited India in 1943 at the invitation of General Joseph Stilwell, the American commander of the China-Burma-India (CBI) theatre of WWII. He visited the Sino-Indian army training camp in Ramgarh, in present day Jharkhand and the Visvabharati, Santiniketan. He painted many paintings in India which were exhibited after his return to China. See: Zhang Nan (2019) “Gandhi's Chinese Friend Tseng Shengti”, Cangshu Bao, August 15, 2019. Zhang Nan (2019) “Gandi de Zhongguo pengyou Tseng Shengti” «Cangshu bao» 2019-08-15
  47. For translation of the obituary, see: Prashant Kaushik, translation of Luo Jialun (1948) “Paying Last Respects to Mahatma Gandhi” in B.R. Deepak, and D.P Tripathi,(eds.), India and Taiwan - From Benign Neglect to Pragmatism, (New Dell Books, 2016), pp. 112-119).
  48. Tseng, 1982, op.cit., p. 94.
  49. Wen, 2016. op.cit.
  50. Tseng, 1982, op.cit.,p.86.
  51. Ibid, p.vii.
  52. Ibid, p.50.
  53. Ibid, p. 51-4.
  54. Ibid, p.75.
  55. Ibid.
  56. Ibid.
  57. Tseng, 1982, op.cit., p.80.
  58. Ibid, p.82.
  59. “Letter to C.F. Andrews”, October 26, 1926, CWMG, VOLO36. pp.435, accessed on 12 Dec 2022.
  60. Tseng ,1982, op.cit., p. 85.
  61. “Predestined Love in India: Mahatma Gandhi's Chinese Disciple Shanti Tseng and His Descendants”, 25 Nov 2020. (Yindu gingyuan: Ce xie Gandi de huayi dizi Tseng Shengti ji qi houyi”, 2020 nian 11 yue 25 ri), accessed on 20 Dee 2022.
    62.

Courtesy: Gandhi Marg, Volume 45, Number 1, April-June 2023

* Prashant Kaushik is Assistant Professor at the Centre for Chinese Studies, Central University of Gujarat, Sector-29, Gandhinagar, Gujarat. Earlier, he taught at the Department of East Asian Studies, University of Delhi, and the National Defence Academy, Khadakwasla. His M. Phil, from the Centre for Chinese and Southeast Asian Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, looks at the reportage about Mahatma Gandhi in China during the first half of the twentieth century. Email: prashant.kaushik@cug.ac.in